K 















a^ 









Bv GEORGE B. KILBON 



KNIFE WORK IN THE SCHOOLROOM 

F'ULLY Illustrated $i.oo net 



SUPPLIED BY 



Lee and Shepard Boston 



MANUAL TRAINING 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK 



A SERIES OF SIXTEEN LESSONS TAUGHT IN THE 

SENIOR GRAMMAR GRADE AT 

SPRINGFIELD MASS. 

AND 

DESIGNED TO GIVE FUNDAMENTAL INSTRUCTION IN 

USE OF ALL THE PRINCIPAL TOOLS NEEDED 

IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 



BY 



GEORGE B. KILBON 

Principal of Manual Training, Springfield, Mass., and Author of 
"Knife Work in the Schoolroom" 



Illustratcti ^. ^.^, 



BOSTON 
LEE AND SHEPARD PUBLISHERS 

lO MILK STREET 
1893 



AFh .22 1393 ' 



\< 






Copyright, 1S93, by Lee and Shepard 



-/4// Rights Reserved 



Manual Training— Elementary Woodwork. 



^--^3f5 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introduction 1 

Equipment 3 

LESSON 

I. Use of the Hammer. — Nail-driving 7 

II. Use of the Gauge 16 

III. Measurement 21 

lY. Use of the Try-Square and the Bevel 26 

V. Explanation of the Difference between Slitting 

AND Cutting-off Saws 32 

YI. Use of Saws 36 

YII. Surface Planing 41 

YIII. Edge and End Planing 47 

IX. Use of the Bit and the Brad-Awl 55 

X. Shove-planing 60 

XI. To make a Square Prism and a Cylinder .... 67 

XII. Use of the Chisel and the Gouge 70 

XIII. Use of the Hand-Screw and the Screw-Driver . 75 

XIY. To MAKE A Pair of Scales 80 

XY. To MAKE A Bevelled Box or Card-Receiver ... 85 

XYI. Grinding-Tools 91 



111 



INTRODUCTION. 



The title given to this book was cliosen because of the 
purpose to present fundamental exercises in a simple form 
for the use of beginners. Effort has beei\ made to detail 
-operations minutely, hoping to be of service to novices, 
though well aware that no book can be a substitute for an 
efficient instructor. The arrangement is from the easy to the 
difficult by successive steps, and is designed to give boys of 
twelve years and upward primary command of the use of a 
set comprising the principal wood-working tools. The smaller 
planes and saws are chiefly used. Other tools are of standard 
size. Small pieces of wood are used, since elementary instruc- 
tion can be better given thereby. The different kinds of nail- 
driving, and the use of gauge and try-square, are first taught 
on boards prepared by machinery. The ability to use each 
tool should be mastered before undertaking the study of 
another. 

The lessons described have been given to the ninth, or 
senior, grammar grade of the public schools at Springfield, 
Mass., since the organization of the manual training-school at 
that place in 1886, classes of twelve to nineteen receiving one 
lesson per week of one and one-half hours' duration, and com- 
mencing with September, 1892, the first half of them are now 
given to the eighth grade, classes receiving one lesson each 
fortnight. A selection under the title "Ten Lessons in 

1 



15 INTRODUCTION. 

Manual Training " was published in The New York School 
Journal between Sept. 26, 1891, and Aug. 26, 1892. 

The sixth and seventh grades at Springfield receive manual 
instruction through the medium of knife-work outlined in a 
book published by The Milton Bradley Co., entitled " Knife 
Work in the School Eoom ; " the eighth and ninth grades, 
through the medium of the within described elementary 
course; and high school pupils who so elect receive daily 
lessons for three years in joinery, wood-turning, carving, 
pattern-making, moulding, forging, iron-filing, turning and 
planing, and machine construction. 

The question is under advisement of writing out a descrip- 
tion of high-school work following the method pursued in 
" Knife Work " and in this book. Whether it will be done 
will depend somewhat on the acceptance of these two volumes. 

Mechanical drawing is given to pupils in the eighth and 
ninth grades in the ordinary schoolroom, using the 9 in. X 12 
in. industrial drawing kit made by the Milton Bradley Co. ; 
and among other things drawn are the manual problems. 
High-school pupils have an extended course of daily work in 
drawing, their manual problems being included. 



EQUIPMENT. 



Fig. 1 is a front elevation ; Fig. 2, a plan ; Figs. 3 and 4, 
left and right elevations, of an individual work bench, 4^ ft. 
long X 2 ft. wide X 34 in. high. The two end views show 




Fig. 1. 

tools hanging in position^ Other tools are kept, some on the 
bench top, some in the rack on the back side of the bench, 
and others in the drawer. 

To accommodate boys of small stature, movable platforms 
4^ ft. long X 2 ft. wide are used, varying in height from 2 in. 
to 5 in. When not needed, these platforms are buttoned to 
the back side of the bench. When the arm of a pupil hangs 

3 



4 ELEMENT ABY WOOD^VbBK. 

naturally by the side, and the wrist is bent so as to cause the 
hand to stand at right angles to the body, the hand so held 



O O O O OOOO o ooooiooeoooool 





■ li =1 


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Fig. 2. 



should pass just underneath the 2 in. plank forming the top 
of the bench. This rule will decide the height of platform 
needed for any pupil. 




Fig. 4. 



A school may be furnished with twelve to twenty-five such 
benches, according to room or demand. If twenty-five are 
furnished, and if room allows, a convenient arrangement of 
them is shown in Fig. 5, each bench being supplied with a 
stool which the pupil occupies when necessary, and which 



EQUIPMENT. O 

are gathered around the teacher's desk during class instruc- 
tion as in Fig. 5. 



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Fig. 



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LIST OF TOOLS WITH WHICH EACH BENCH IS SUPPLIED, WITH 
THEIR LOCATION ABOUT THE BENCH. 

071 the Bench Top. 

'8 in. Bailey Iron smooth-plane. 6 in. Bailey Iron block- 
plane. Straight edge 16 in. X 2 in. X 3-16 in. Box 6 in. X 
3 in. X 1 ill. with four spaces for holding nails. Oil-stone. 
Oil-can. Anvil 3 in. diam. X 1 in- high. 8 in. wooden smooth- 
plane. Shove-plane board. 



Ill the Rack. 

Brad-awl. 6 in. dividers adjustable for pencil. 5-|- in. 
pliers. Gauge. 3 in. screw-driver. Four firmer chisels 1 in., 
^ in., \ in., and ^ in. Knife with two blades. 



ELEMENTARY WOODWOBK. 



On the Right End. 



18 in. cutting-off saw. 18 in. slitting-saw. 10 in. back-saw. 
Saw-block, for use on bench top. Dust brush for use on bench 
top. Whisk broom for clothing. Rule 12 in. long in one un- 
broken piece. Saw shelf, hinged to let down when not in use. 



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Fig. 6. 



Oil the Left End. 

Claw-hammer for driving and drawing nails. Small peen 
hammer for brads. Try-square, 4 in. blade. Bevel, 6 in. 
blade. Bit-brace. 

In the Draivei'. 

In a till with partitions to separate them, one J in. gouge, 
inside ground, one f in. gouge, outside ground. Three auger 
bits, I in., I in., and \ in. Two drill-bits, 7-32 in., and 5-32 
in. Countersink. Lead-pencil. Eraser. Nail set. Brad set. 



USE OF HAMMER. — NAIL-DRIVING, 7 

Under the till a mallet, and space where all of the tools can 
be packed when necessary. 

Under the Bench. 

10 in. hand-clamp. Dust pan and broom for floor-sweeping. 
Half-bushel basket to hold shavings. 

An addition to the foregoing equipment of a half-dozen 
framing-squares and 22 in. Bailey Iron jointers, and two 26 
in. hand-saws will be very serviceable. 

Make as many drawers 21 in. X 10 in. X TJ in. inside 
measurement as there are to be pupils. Fig. 6 is a per- 
spective view of a cupboard containing 82 such drawers. 



LESSON I. 

USE OF HAMMER. NAIL-DRIVING. 

The hammer consists of two parts, the head and the handle. 
CLAW - 




Fig. 7. 

The head has three divisions. First, the ball, which is 
the end that strikes a blow. Second, the eye, or the hole 
which receives the handle ; and third, the claw of the nail- 
hammer, or peen of the brad-hammer. 



8 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 



Problem I. Driving Steel- Wire Nails. — Take for each pupil 
a block of pine or other soft wood, 8 in. X 1| in. X 1| in. 
On one side draw three pencil lines, as in Fig. 8, and place 



^ 



\1 



Fig. 8. 



points 1 in. apart on each line. Supply each pupil with IJ 
dozen 6d. steel-wire nails. 

Hold the hand as in Fig. 9, w^th the thumb on the upper 




side of the handle, or as in Fig. 10, with the hand turned so 
as to bring the thumb partially to one side. Fig. 9 is the 




Fig. 10. 



scientific position, as the thumb is the stronger digit, while 
Fig. 10 is more convenient in practice. The forefinger should 
not rest on the top of the handle, as many amateurs are 



USE OF HAMMEB. — NAIL-DRIVING. ^ 

temi^ted to do. The end of the handle should project about 
an inch beyond the hand. 

At each of the extreme points on one of the lines in Fig. 8 
hold a nail vertical and strike it once. If the blow has caused 
it to incline, push it back a little past a vertical position, and, 
holding it there, strike it again. If it continues to incline, it 
must be loosened in order to press it to a vertical position. 
Drive each nail until only f in. of it projects above the block, 
as in Fig. 11. At each of the intervening points on the 
same line drive nails, sighting with the eye to see that the 
heads are all in line, as in Fig. 12. 



^ 



\ 



t-H -H-4-K 

— * — • — ' — • — ' * ' *v 



Ficr. 11. 



Fig. 12. 



Rapid workmen may drive a second row. If it is deemed 
desirable to mark the work, mark 10 off from 100, for every 
nail which inclines i in. from perpendicular, or whose head 
is -jV i^- above or below the line of | in. in height. 

Froblem II. Draivlng Steel-Wire Nails. — Place the work 
in the vise, with its top level with the bench top, as in 
Fig. 13. 

Supply each pupil with a fulcrum block 8 in. X IJ in- X I 
in. Hold the hammer as in Fig. 13, supporting its eye on the 
thickness of the fulcrum block, and draw the nail about f of 
an inch, moving the hand through about ^ of a circle ; that is, 
to a vertical position, as in Fig. 14. 

Support the eye on the width of the block, as in Fig. 15, and 
draw the nail entirely from the wood. The eye of a hammer 
should always be supported thus when drawing nails. The 
support should be a little higher than the nail head when any 



ELEMENTABY WOODWdBK. 




USE OF HAMMER.— NAIL-DRIVING. H 

partial drawing commences, and each partial drawing should 
be about -| in. to f in. in amount, in order not to bend the 
nail, or strain the hammer handle. I have seen workmen 
break hammer handles and nails resist drawing when neither 
would have occurred had the above simple direction been 
followed. Mark 10 off from 100 for every bent nail. 

Problem III. Drlvi7ig Cut Nails. — Upon another side of 
the block used in the two last problems, draw lines as before 
and drive 6d. cut nails. These are wedge-shaped viewed from 
one side, while of uniform thickness viewed from the adjacent 
side. Insert them as in Tig. 16, in order that they may not 
split the wood, which will be the case if they are turned ^ 
the way around. 

Follow the order given in Problem I. and drive one row. 
Follow the order given in Problem II. and draw them without 
bending. If any nails do become inadvertently or carelessly 
bent, straighten them on the anvil. Mark as in previous 
problems. 




^ |\. \ 



Fig. 16. Fig. 17. 

Prohlem IV. Curve-Nailing. — Take the block used in the 
previous problems, draw a line on one side \ in. from the edge, 
and place points at every inch upon it. On an adjacent side 
draw a line ^ in. from the edge, as in Fig. 17 

Provide 1 in. No. 18 steel-wire nails. Using the pliers, bend 

^ 

Fig. 18. 

a nail about \ in. from the point, as in Fig. 18. Insert the 
nail in one of the prepared points on the first side of the 



12 



ELEMENTARY JVOODWOEK. 



block, with its body standing perpendicular, as in Pig. 19, 
where an end view of the block is shown. 




Drive the nail carefully, causing the point to appear on the 
•| in. line on the adjacent side of the block, as in Fig. 20. In 
a similar manner drive nails at the other prepared points, 
which are on the first side of the block. . Mark 10 off from 
100 for every nail whose point appears | in. from the line on 
the adjacent side. 




Fig. 21. 

Prohlem V. Toe-Iiailin(/. — Cnll attention to the different 
timbers of a common house-frame, as shown in Fig. 21. 



USE OF HAMMER. — NAIL-BRIVING. 



13 



These timbers are largely fastened together by a process 
called toe-nailing. 

Take a piece of soft wood 2 in. X 2 in. X I in- to represent 
a sill, and a piece 2 in. X i in- X I i"- to represent a post or 
stud. Lay the post on the bench, and with the peen hammer 



I 



_^s. 



^^ 



Fig. 22. Fig. 23. 

start a | in. finishing-nail, or patent brad, ^ in. from one end, 
as in Fig. 22, remembering the relation its wedge shape needs 
to bear to the grain of the Avood. 

Press it to an angle of 30° Avith the side of the post, and 
drive it well in, but not so as to have the points show on the 
end. The front view will appear as in Fig. 23. Turn the post 

so as to bring the bottom side uppermost and ^ ^%^ 

supporting it on two blocks, 4 in. X tg i^^- X 1% 
in., which are to be used in the next problem ; 
start another nail in similar manner, as in Fig. 24. Fig. 24. 

Hold the post erect on the sill, and joining the outer faces 
of the two perfectly, drive both brads as far as possible with- 
out marring the wood with the hammer. Hold the left hand 
firmly on the top of the post while 
doing this, and do not let perfect joining 
of faces be disturbed. With the brad 
set and hammer drive the brads till the 
heads are flush with the side of the post ; 
that is, till the heads have fully entered 
the wood. The work will appear as in 
Fig. 25. One nail-head only is shown 




Fig. 25. 



in this figure, the other bein< 



the 



invisible side. 

In a similar manner start, drive, and set a brad in each of 
the other sides of the post, when it will be secured to the sill 
by four brads. 



14 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 



Eapid workmen may perform two or even three problems 
while the slowest workmen are performing one. Mark 10 off 
from 100 on each problem for every imperfect joining of faces 
and for every side of the post that is marred by the hammer. 

Problem V. Blind Nailing. — Supply each pupil with two 
pieces of soft wood 4 in. X W i^- X 1% ii^- to represent joists, 
one piece 4 in. X 2 in. X tV i^^- to hold them together con- 
veniently, and five matched boards, 4 in. X I X i in. 




Fig. 26. 



Use I patent brads, and nail the joists to the board, as in 
Fig. 26. Place one matched board on the joists with its 



K. 



Fig. 27 



grooved edge agreeing with the end of the joists, and drive 
two brads near the grooved edge of the board, securing it thus 



A 



Fig. 28. 

to each joist. Fig. 27 is an end view of the nailed board, 
while at A Fig. 31 is seen a perspective view. 



USE OF HAMMER.— NAIL-BRIVING 



15 



Drive two nails obliquely at the base of the tongue of the 
board, as in Fig. 28, setting them flush by means of the brad 
set, thus further securing the matched board to each joist. 
These last two nails are said to be blinded, since the next 
board which is put on blinds or hides them, as in Fig. 29. 



^ 



Fig. 29. 



Fig. 30. 



Blind nail the second board, and adding each of the remain- 
ing boards blind nail them in a similar manner, as in Fig. 30. 
The completed work is shown in perspective in Fig. 31. 




Fig. 31. 

No brad heads appear in sight except the two which were 
perpendicularly driven near the grooved edge of the first laid 
matched board and* the two with which the last board was 
secured. Eapid workmen may make two or three problems 
while the slowest ones are making one. Mark 5 off from 
100 for every open joint between any two boards, and 
for every nail whose driving has caused the work to be 
marred. 



16 



ELEMENTAB Y WO OD WOBK. 



LESSON 11. 

USE OF THE GAUGE. 

EvEKY board has two sides, two edges, and two ends, as 
in Fig. 32. 




Fig, 33. 



The gauge consists of two principal parts — the stick and 
the block, as in Fig. 33, which figure also shows the method 



USE OF THE GAUGE. 



17 



of holding the gauge while adjusting it. (The steel point 
should be filed to a goose-bill shape so as to cut, not scratch, 
a line. See two views of it at A.) 

Problem I. Gauge-Drill. — Hold the gauge-stick as in Fig. 
33, the fingers of the left hand grasping it securely, while the 
left thumb is free to move up and down the stick, and be kept 
in constant contact with the block. With the right hand turn 
the set-screw about one-half a revolution to loosen it, then 
raise or lower the block, keeping hold of the set-screw mean- 
while with the right hand, and keeping the left thumb mean- 
while in constant contact with the block. 

Requiring the observance of the above instructions, give the 
class a drill in unison in setting the block at inch and at half- 
inch graduations, then at quarter-inches, then at eighths, and 
finally at sixteenths. 

Frohlem II. Gauge Practice. — For convenience in holding 




Fig:. 34. 



work, have a rabbit cut in the right-hand end of the bench-top, 
9 in. long, 1 in. wide X i iii- deep, as in Fig. 34. 



18 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 



Provide a quantity of boards prepared by machinery, 8 in. 
X 2 in. X T^6 i^- '-^^^^ thickness of -,% in. is chosen because 
I in. boards resawed and planed will finish to that thickness. 
The dimensions, 8 in. long X 2 in. wide, are chosen for con- 
venience. The chief requisite is that the boards have straight 
edges. For a class of 25 pupils provide at least 100 boards. 
Supply each pupil with one of the above pieces. Hold it in 
the rabbit on the bench by means of the left hand and hold 
the gauge on it with the right hand, as in Fig. 35. 




Fiff. 35. 



Of that portion of the gauge-stick marked ef, the corner 
which is lowest and which is farthest from you must rest on 
the work as in the end view, A. Fig. 36, where the steel point 
does not touch the wood. {Im^jortant feature No. 1.) 

Then roll the gauge toward you till the point touches the 
wood, as at B. Do not roll it till the point stands vertical, as 



USE OF THE GAUGE. 



19 



at C, for then the point will enter the wood too deeply and 
make too heavy a line. Skill must be obtained to make any 
depth of line called for by holding the gauge rolled at the 




XP^ 



Fig. 36. 



desired amount between the positions A and C. (Important 
feature No. 2.) That face of the gauge-block which rests 
against the edge ah of the work must also be placed in per- 
fect contact throughout its entire length and kept so while a 
line is being gauged. {Important feature No. 3.) There are, 
therefore, three important features to be noted simultaneously 
in every act of gauging, and the pupil should drill till he can 
note them intuitively. 

With the gauge set at \ in. and observing diligently all of 
the above instructions gauge a line from each edge on one side 
of the board, as in Fig. 37. In doing this drive the gauge 
forward ; that is, from a toward h in Eig. 35. 



Fig. 37 



Eepeat the process on the other side of the board, making 
four lines in all with the \ in. setting. Set the gauge /g in. 



20 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 

and make four more lines as above, then set it | in., or 
■j^g- in., and re}3eat. So continue till ^^ in. setting is reached 
and a side of the board will appear as in Fig. 38. 

Request each pupil to write his name neatly in the unlined 
space on one side of the board, and then, setting the gauge at 



PUPIL'S NAME 



Fig. 38. 

successive sixteenths above \ in., fill the back side with lines, 
as in. Fig. 39. These should show improvement over the 
previous lines. 




Fig. 39. 



Rapid workmen may repeat the problem on another board. 
Every workman needs to master the problem as a necessary 
condition to his success with future lessons. 

Mark 2 off from 100 for every line that is left broken or 
crooked. 

Prohlem III. Gauging on Edges and Ends of Boards. — 
Set the gauge -^q in. and gauge on the edges and ends of the 
boards used in the previous problem. Set the gauge \ in. and 



2IEA S U REM EN T. 



21 



repeat. This will be found more difficult than Problem II. 
The work will appear as in Fig. 40. 




Fig. 40. 

Further practice in edge and end gauging can be had on 
boards which will be used in the next two lessons. 

Eequire each pupil to write his name on every piece of 
finished work. 



LESSON III. 



MEASUREMENT. 



In practical work measurement precedes gauging, which 
was the subject of Lesson II. In this course of lessons it is 
placed after gauging in order that lines may be gauged on the 
board used in the measurement problems. 

Froblem I. Measurement with Fencil. — Take a board 8 in. 
X 2 in. X 1% ii^. Set the gauge successively at \ in., \ in., 
and \ in., and at every setting gauge two lines on each side 



FiK. 41. 



of the board. Set the gauge 1 in. and gauge one line, 
side will appear as in Fig. 41. 



Each 



22 



ELEMENTAE Y WOOD WOllK. 



See that the pencil has a sharp point. This can be done by 
first whittling it with the knife, making a cone | in. long, as 



Fig. 42. 



in Fig. 42, and then perfecting it with a piece of No. sand- 
paper as follows : — 

Hold the sand-paper on the bench with the left hand, as in 
Fig. 43. Hold the pencil-point on the sand-paper near to the 
end a, the fingers of the right hand being in the position 
shown at A, and draw the pencil toward h, rolling it under- 
neath while doing so, bringing the fingers of the right hand 




Fig. 43. 



to the position shown at B, thus preserving the cone shape 
while sanding. Kelease the grasp which the thumb and the 
two fore-fingers have on the pencil, and, holding it by the 
remaining fingers, as at C, carry it back to a and repeat 
the sanding process until the pencil-point is sharp. 

Hold the rule on the board, one end of it exactly agreeing 



MEASUREMENT. 



23 



with the end of the board, and the graduated edge of the rule 
near to one of the gauged lines, as in Fig. 44. 




■Fig. 44. 



Place the pencil-point on the gauged line and successively 
against each i in. graduation of the rule, holding it as m Fig. 
44 and givino- it a slight revolution to imprint a dot. 

Eepeat on a second line at every i in., and the work will 
appear as in Fig. 45. 



Fig. 45. 



Problem II. Measurement with the Knife. - To sharpen the 
knife-point, first grind it till the edge is thin. This is a diffi- 
cult operation, requiring skill, and a workman of experience 



LI 



Fig. 46. Fig. 47. 



24 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK, 

must do it. Next put a few drops of kerosene oil on the oil 
stone, and hold the knife-blade on the stone, as in Fig. 46. 
Keep the ground face of the blade in perfect 
-A contact with the stone, and make a few ellip- 
,/ 1 tical motions, as indicated by the dotted line, 
so adjusting the strain of the muscles in grasp- 
ing the knife that the rubbing will be done at 
and near the edge and not at or near the back 
of the blade, also constantly raising and lower- 
ing the hand about ^ in. to cause the stoning to 
be effective from the extreme point of the blade 
along the curve of the edge to the place where the blade is of 
full width, that is, from c to d, Fig. 47. 

It is manifest that both sides of the blade need this treat- 
ment. After a few motions inspect it to see if the stoning is 
being done as above directed. If not, strain the muscles dif- 
ferently next time according as the error suggests. Test the 
edge by touching it to the ball of the left thumb, or by cut- 
ting a piece of soft pine. Sometimes an edge will be inad- 
vertently ground or stoned too thin, that is, so as to leave a 
feather which is shown exaggerated at a b, Fig. 48. 

This must be worn off at a by light 
stoning or by rubbing on the palm of 
the hand, or on a piece of leather ^ '^ 

into which has been rubbed a little ^^^' ^^' 

lard and emery flour, or on the clean upper of one's shoe. 

Take the board used in Problem I. Hold the rule on 
it near the third line ; hold the knife as in Fig. 49, and press 
it vertically, making points at every ^ in. graduation of the 
rule. 

See that the points made are large enough to be easily seen 
at arm's length, that they are of uniform size, and all at exact 
right angles to the gauged line. 

Repeat the effort on the fourth line, placing points at every 
■^ in. of alternate inches. The object of utilizing only alter- 



MEASUREMENT. 



25 




Fi-. 49. 



nate inches is to give opportunity to rest the hand. The work 
will appear as the third and fourth lines in Fig. 50. 



h I. I I I I 1 I 



Fig. 50. 



Eapid workmen may place points on additional lines. 
Slower workmen need not complete the sixteenths, but should 
do accurate work as far as they proceed. 

Problem III. Varyi7ig Measureme^its. — Let the class work 
in unison, placing the rule on a fifth line and making meas- 
urements at the teacher's call. If the measurements com- 
juence at the right, and the calls are successively 1 in., i in., 
\ in., 1 in., \ in., i in., their sum will be 2f in. as in the fifth 
line Fisj. 50. 



26 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 



Place points on the remaining lines in a similar manner, 
calling a different succession of measurements for each line, 
until the entire class during a given effort reach the correct 
sum. 



LESSON IV. 

USE OF TfiY-SQUARE AND BEVEL. 

The gauge is used, as was described in Lesson II., to make 
lines on the side or edge of a board parallel to the grain. The 
try-square is used to guide a pencil or knife in making lines 
at right angles to the grain. It consists of two parts, the 
beam and the blade, as in Fig. 51. 




Fig. 51. 

Problem I. Use of Try- Square with Pencil. — Take a board 




Fig. 52. 

8 in. X li in. X I in. Hold the rule on it, as in Fig. 52, and 
with a fine pencil-point, operating as in the measurement 
lesson, place points on the wood at every inch graduation of 
the rule. 



USE OF TBY-SQUAEE AND BEVEL. 



27 



Hold the try-square as in Fig. 53, using the left fore-finger 
to press the blade firmly to the face of the board while the 
thumb and remaining fingers hold the beam firmly against 
its edge. Place the point of the pencil in one of the points 
which it has made on the board, carefully move the try- 
square against it, raise the pencil, and with it draw a fine line 
across the board close to the blade of the try-square. 





Fig. 53. 



Fig. 5i. 



In doing this the right hand should grasp the pencil as 
though writing with it, and the pencil should incline to the 
right just enough to bring the left side of its cone of sharpen- 



ing vertical, as in Fig. 54, Avhich is a front 



of the 



pencil, try-square blade, and board. Draw the pencil only 



once. 



Turn the board so as to bring its front edge uppermost, and 
in a similar manner draw a line across that edge, as in Fig. 55. 




Fig. 55. 



1^8 ELEMENTABY WOODWOBK. 

Eepeat this process on the second side, and lastl}^ on the 
second edge, when a line is sqnared entirely around the board 
and should meet its starting-point, as in Fig. 56. 




Fig. 56. 



In Fig. bb the right hand holds a knife instead of a pencil, 
and in that respect illustrates Problem II., instead of Problem I. 

Square lines around the board through the other points. 
The effort of the pupil must not be to fill the board with 
lines, however, but to make perfect lines. 

Problem II. Use of Try- Square ivith Kfiife. — Lay the rule 
on the board again, as in Fig. 52, and with a sharp knife point, 
operating as in the measurement lesson, make impressions in 
the wood at half-inches. 

Use the knife as the pencil was used in Problem I., and square 
lines around the board passing through these half-inch points. 
The knife, like the pencil, must be inclined to the right, just 
enough only to allow its point to cut the wood close to the 
try-square blade. The knife blade must furthermore be turned 
as in the plan view A, Fig. 57. If it is turned too much to 
the right, as at B, it will move away from the try-square blade 
in the direction of the dotted lines. If turned too much to 













-1 






'a 












^c 


II II 






|L. II 






1^131 





Fig. 57 



the left, as at C, it is liable to be dulled as it slides along the 
try -square blade, and there is danger of its pushing the try- 



USE OF TEY-SQUARE AND BEVEL. 



29 



square blade out of place, unless the grasp of the left hand is 
very firm. This same danger of the try-square slipping is im- 
minent, if at any time the right hand presses the knife too 
hard against square. 

In Problem I. instructions were given to draw the pencil 
but once in making any given line. This is to avoid wearing 
away the pencil and blurring the line. The knife, on the con- 
trary, needs to be drawn twice, first lightly to locate the line, 
and second heavier to deepen it, as each line should be deep 
enough to be seen when held at arm's length, or should easily 
arrest the finger nail when drawn across it. After squaring 
any given line around the board, rest a few seconds before 
commencing another. Otherwise the muscles will tire and 
success" be impossible. A board filled with pencil lines at 
every inch and knife lines at every half-inch will appear, as 
in Fig. 5S. 




Fiff. 58. 



If success is not yet attained, practise the making of lines 
at every i in., and, if necessary, at every i in. 

Problem III. Use of Gauge and Try- Square Combined. — 
Take a board 4 in. X 2 in. X tV i"- Hold the rule on it, as in 





Fig. GO. 



Fig. 52, and place six knife-points \ in. apart, measuring from 
each end, as in Fig. 59. 



30 



ELEMEN TABY WO 01) WORK. 



Square knife-lines through the two extreme points ; set the 
gauge \ in. and gauge from each edge of the board, starting 
and stopping on the squared lines, as in Fig. 60. Square knife- 
lines through the second points from each end, starting and 
stopping on the gauged lines ; set the gauge i in. and gauge 
between the knife-lines as before. Proceed in this manner 
till all of the twelve points are utilized, when the work will 
appear as in Fig. 61. Rapid workmen may draw diagonals on 




Fig. 61. 



the opposite side of the board, and between them gauge lines 
\ in. apart and square lines \ in. apart, as in Fig. 62. 




Fig. 62. 



Prohlem IV. Use of Bevel. — In making lines other than 
at right angles to the edge of a board an adjustable square or 
bevel is needed, as in Fig. 63. It is held and used the same 
as the try-square. 

Prepare a board, as directed in connection with Fig. 52, and 



USE OF TEY-SQUAEE AND BEVEL. 



31 



through each point, with the bevel set at any chosen angle, 
draw pencil-lines on one side of the board. Continue these 




Fig. 63. 



lines around the board in a manner similar to Problem I., 
squaring across the edges and bevelling across the opposite 
side. The work will appear as in Fig. 64. 




Fig. 64. 



Problem V. Use of Bevel with Knife. — Place knife-points 
on the board at half-inches and cut bevelled lines through 
them, continuing them around the board like the pencil-lines. 
Kepeat at \ in. if necessary. 

Problem VI. Let rapid workmen take a new board and 
draw lines around it, using the bevel on both sides and both 
edges. The work will appear as in Pig. 65. 



d2 



ELEMENTAE Y WOOD WORE. 



It will be a sufficient register of a pupil's attainment to 
inspect the work represented by Fig. 61, and mark 1 off from 




Fig. 65. 

100 for every crooke^ line and for every line that crosses 
another. 



LESSON V. 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SLITTING AND 
CUTTING-OFF SAWS. 



Provide for the teacher two models in wood, one of a slit- 
ting and one of a cutting-off saw. These may be each 30 in. 
X 3 in. X i in., the slitting teeth 2^ X U, and the cutting- 
off teeth 2 in. X li in. 

FroUein L Slitting-Saw. — Take a board 4 in, X 2 in. X 




Fig. 66. 



Fig. 67. 



^ in. ; on one side of it gauge two lines \ in. and f in. respec- 
tively from one edge, as in Fig. (SQ>. . 



SLITTING AND CUTTING-OFF SAWS. 



33 



Place the cliipping-block on the bench and lay the board on 
it with an end toward you, guiding the chisel-edge with a 
finger of the left hand. Hold the i in. chisel in the right hand 
exactly vertical, as in Fig. 67, with the bevelled edge away 
from you, and cut between the gauged lines a chip about J^ 
in. long and entirely through the board from its upper to its 
lower side, as m Fig. QS. 



^ ■ II J 



Fiar (Jb. 



Fisf. m. 




Continue in this manner to cut successive chips, each about 
^ in. long, and each entirely through the thickness of the 
board, until the slowest workmen have made a cutting about 
\ in. long, as in Fig, 69. This cutting is called a kerf. 

Eapid workmen will have made a kerf nearly or quite the 
length of the board. 

If we should make two lines crosswise of the board and en- 
deavor to chisel between them, we could not make a kerf, 
but should splinter the board, as in Fig. 70. 



6 c 



Fig. 7i. 



Fig. 71 is a view of the wooden model of a slitting-saw. 

Its teeth are a succession of chisels. The front edge of 
each tooth, as a h, is at right angles to a line touching the 
points, and all of the slant of the tooth is on the rear edge, as 



34 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 



a c. From the above experimental problem it is manifest that 
such a saw is suitable for slit-sawmg only. 

Problem II. Cutting-ojf Saw. — Take the board used in the 
previous problem, or one similar to it, and using try-square 
and knife, make two lines across the board j^ in. apart, the 
right hand line being -i- in. from the end, as in Fig. 72. 

Lay the board on the chipping-block, 
holding it with the left hand. Hold the 
knife as a pen is held m writing. Incline 
it toward you about 30° from a vertical 
position, as m Fig. 73, but do not incline 
it at all toward the right or left. 
Draw the knife across the board along one of the above 
lines, and then along the other. Continue to do this alter- 
nately, and what happens? ''The wood splits out between 
the lines, making a kerf." If we proceed in this manner, the 
board will soon be cut in two. 





Fig. 73. 



A kerf cannot be cut lengthwise of the grain by this pro- 
cess, because the wood will not split out between the lines. 

If we had a knife with two blades of equal length and ^ 
in. apart, we could draw it through both lines at the same 
time. 

Fig. 74 is a view of the wooden model of a cutting-off saw. 
Its teeth slant about equally on each edge and are bevelled so 



SLITTING AND CUTTING-OFF SAWS. 



35 



that alternate teeth are pointed on one side of the saw, the 
intervening teeth being pointed on the other side. 




Fii. 



Its use produces a result quite similar to the above experi- 
mental problem with the knife ; that is, marking two parallel 
lines across the board and breaking out the wood between 
them. The teeth of a cutting-off saw may then be considered 
as a succession of pairs of knife-points. 

Another important fact concerning saws is that the teeth 
are " set ; " that is, alternate teeth bent toward one side, and 
the intervening teeth bent toward the other side. In the cut- 
ting-off saw the teeth which are pointed on a given side are 
bent toward that side, as in Fig. 75. 



M 



Fig. 75. 




Fig. 76. 



The object of this is to have the saw cut a kerf wider than 
the thickness of its blade, in order that the saw may pass 
easily through the kerf which it is making. Owing to this 
setting and to its bevelled filing, a cutting-off saw appears 



36 



ELEMENT AE Y WOOD WORK. 



grooved along the line of teeth when viewed endwise, as in 
Fig. 75. Hold the model inclined, as in Fig. 76, and a straight 
rod 10 in. long X i in. diameter will slide down this groove. 
An ordinary needle will slide down the teeth of a cutting-off 
saw in a similar manner. 

Each pupil may take in hand the two 18-in. saws on his 
bench, examine them carefully, and hold the slitting-saw in his 
right hand and the cutting-off saw in his left. 

Very few pupils Avill'fail to make the selection accurately 
after the above experimental description. 



LESSON VI. 

USE OF SAWS. 



Problem I. To Start the Kerf. — Take a waste piece of 
board of any dimensions, 4 X 2 X i will answer. Place it 




Fig. 77. 



end uppermost in the vise. With try-square and pencil draw 
lines on the upper end i in. apart. Hold the slitting-saw in 



USE OF SAWS. 37 

the right hand, guiding it with the left thumb so that its teeth 
shall rest on one of the lines. Drive the saw Jirst foricard 
and then back several times, taking full length strokes to 
within about 1 in. of each end, meantime so controlling the 
muscles of the right hand that, although the saw teeth touch 
the wood during each entire stroke, they shall not cut into it 
at all. The commencement of this process is illustrated in 
Fig. 77. 

The teacher should be able to drive the saw forward and 
back on the left hand, as in Fig. 78, touching the palm con- 




Fig. 78. 

stantly, but not injuring it, to illustrate clearly to pupils that 
it can be done. Eequire the class to drive the saw forward 
and back on the wood as above, acting in concert as the teacher 
counts 1, 2; 1, 2, etc., in order to get a moderate, regular 
motion, as boys left to themselves will saw with fury. The 
power to follow all of the above directions we will term get- 



38 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 



ting command of the saw ; and every pupil needs to get this 
command before being allowed to saw. 

Next let the weight of the saw bear on the board while the 
forward stroke is being made, but not during the backward 
stroke, and the saw will descend into the wood, making a cut 
which is technically called a kerf. 

At the commencement and close of each forward stroke the 
saw should be held at command. Midway of each forward 
stroke it should do its heaviest cutting. The full stroke 
should be a crescendo followed by a diminuendo as in music. 
The saw should be held at command during the entire back- 
ward stroke. 

Froblem II. Slit-Saiving Near to Line. — Take a board 8 
in. X 2 in. X i i^- ^^'^^ make an X oii one edge. Set the 
gauge \ in. and gauge two lines on each side and each end, as 
in Fig. 79. Set the gauge ^ in. and repeat ; then | in. and 





Fig. 79. Fig. 80. 

repeat ; then 1 in. and gauge around once, that is, from the 
X edge. Square around with fine pencil-point at every inch. 
The work will appear as in Fig. 80. 



USE OF SAWS. 



39 



Hold the work in the vise, end uppermost, as in Fig. 77, 
one-half of it buried, and saw a kerf j\ in. to the right of the 
right-hand line. When this kerf has proceeded downward 1 
in., that is, to the first squared line, stop and examine it care- 
fully, and if it has not kept parallel with the gauged line, 
scrape it with that portion of the saw nearest the handle, 
commonly called the heel of the saw, until it is restored to 
pcti'allel. A, Fig. 81, represents a kerf at first running to the 




Fiff. 81. 




Fior. 82 



right, but afterwards restored to its proper position and con- 
tinued a little below the squared line. B represents a kerf 
running at first to the left and afterward restored. On no 
account should the kerf be allowed to proceed below the 
squared line till its wrong direction, if it have any, is rectified, 
and the aim of the pupil must be to keep the saw from run- 
ning at all to either side. Furthermore, the location of the 
kerf should be as accurate on the back side of the work as on 
the front. 

Proceed to saw down to the second squared line, stop and 



40 



EL E MEN TARY TVO OD WORE. 



inspect, and correct if necessary. Proceed to saw down to the 
third squared line, and stop on it. 

In tlie same manner saw near to the remaining gauged 
lines. The work will appear as the upper portion of Fig. 82, 
where for clearness, as also in Fig. 81, only one-half of the 
number of lines gauged on Fig. 80 are shown. Mark 10 off 
from 100 for every line which at its finish deviates ^ in. from 
its proyjer position. 

Frohlem III. SI it- Sawing Close to Line. — Place the op- 
posite end of the work uppermost, and saw so that the left 
side of the saw-blade shall cut to the centre of the line, ob- 
serving in all other respects the directions given above, and 
the work will appear as the lower portion of Fig. 82. 

Problem IV. Cut-off Sawbig Near to Liiie. — Take a board 
8 in. X ^i ii^- X I i"-? gauge-lines at every -J- in. on the sides 
and square pencil-lines round at every ^ in. Put it in 
the vise with an edge uppermost, and, observing directions 
given in Problem IL, saw near to every line, as in the upper 
portion of Fig. 83. 

Mark 5 off from 100 for every line that deviates, at its 
finish, -J^ in. from its proper position. 

Problem V. Cut-off Sawing Close to Line. — Place the board 
in the vise with the opposite edge uppermost, and, observing 
directions given in Problem III., saw close to the line. The 
work will appear as in the lower portion of Fig. 83. 



^^^^w 


NAME 





Fig. 83. 



Eapid workmen may take a second board and repeat, which 
repetition will increase their proficiency, or they may saw 
diagonally. 



SURFACE PLANING. 



41 



LESSO>^ VII. 



SURFACE PLANING. 



The two sides of a board, or the four sides of a square stick, 
being larger surfaces than edges or ends, are often technically 
called surfaces, and planing them is known as surface planing. 

The principal planes used by wood workmen are jack-plane 
14 in. long, fore-plane 14 in., jointer 22 in., smooth-plane 8 in., 
and block-plane 6 in., and these may be of wood or of iron. 
The blade of the jack-plane is ground so that its edge is a 
continuous curve, as in Fig. 84. All other plane blades are 
ground as in Fig. 85 ; that is, with the edge straight for some- 



Fig. 84. 



Fig. 85. 



what more than one-half of its length, then rounded slightly 
at each end. The jack-plane and block-plane each have single 
blades, as in Fig. 86. All others have double blades ; that is, 
the blade is provided with a cap, as in Fig. 87. 




Fig. 86. 



This cap is necessary when cross-grained or complex-grained 
boards are to be planed. It is then brought down as near to 
the cutting-edge of the blade as possible, but for straight- 



42 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 



grained wood it is of no special service, and had better be set 
back about 3^2- in. It is so set in tliese lessons. 

Only three planes are needed in this series of lessons, to the 
first two of which Ave will for convenience give special names 
of our own. An 8 in. wooden smooth-plane (Fig. 88) is used 
for all rough planing, and we will call it the roughlng-jjlajie. 
An 8 in. iron smooth-plane (Fig. 89) is used for all finish 




i'ig. 6S 



planing parallel with the grain ; that is, on sides and edges of 
boards, and we will call it the finishing-jdane. A 6 in. iron 
block-plane (Fig. 90) is used for all planing on the ends of 
boards. 

The block-plane differs from all others in having its blade 
inverted, as in Fig. 91, and is set at a more acute angle with 
the face or under side of the block, as will be seen in compar- 
ing Fig. 90 with Figs. 88 and 89. 

The knob on the front end of the block-plane seen at A 
Fig. 90 is a screw to hold in place the throat-plate which is 





Fig. 91 



the adjustable front portion of tlie face or under side of the 
plane. Sometimes this throat-plate is accidentally slipped 



SURFACE OF PLANING. 



43 



till it strikes the blade, and the throat is thereby closed so 
that shavings cannot come out. Look out for this danger. 

Problem I. Bough Fleming. — Each pupil takes his rough- 
ing-plane in hand and follows instructions given by the 
teacher, who shows how to hold the plane while removing the 
blade, and then names and explains each of its parts. In 
removing the blade, strike with a hammer either on the rear 
end, A, or on the front portion of the top, B, but never on 
the front end, C. Ee-assemble and adjust the parts. 

Take a board, preferably 12 in. wide, though any other 
width will answer, and saw off for each pupil a piece 8^ in. 
long. With pencil and straight-edge draw lines on it length- 
wise 3 in. apart, as in Fig. 92. 



Fij?. 92. 



Fig. 93. 



Hold this piece in the vise and saw on the lines, dividing it 
in four pieces, 3 in. rough width. Hold these pieces in the 
vise successively and rough-plane both edges till saAV marks 
are removed. Two or three strokes of the rough ing-plane 
ought to do this. Be sure that the plane cuts a shaving at 
every stroke and that it cuts a shaving along the entire length 
of the work. A common fault with beginners is to omit plan- 
ing at the rear end, or the end first met by the blade, and 
commencing when the blade is well on the wood continue to 
plane the rest of the way, giving the board the tapering shape 
of Fig. 93. Make sure at the outset that this tendency is 
overcome. 



44 



ELEMENT AEY WOODWORK. 



'Problem 11. Surface Flaning. — Take the finishing-plane 
apart, give names to the several pieces, and explain the prov- 
ince of each. Ee-assemble the plane and adjust it thus : 
Holding it with face uppermost, sight along the face to see if 
the blade projects. Turn the adjusting-screw, a, in the neces- 
sary direction, and move tlie lever, b, the necessary Avay to 
cause the middle portion of the blade's edge to appear in sight 
while its ends do not, as in the diagram Fig. 94. 



J 



Fig. 94. 



Put on the blackboard, or on cardboard to hang perma- 
nently on the wall, the two diagrams Fig. 95, to assist pupils 





Fi":. 95. 



in knowing which way to turn adjusting-screws. A is a 
diagram of the finishing-plane, B of the block-plane. To 
force the blade of either plane downward, that is, when a 
thicker shaving is needed, turn the front side of the adjusting- 
screw in the direction of the arrow. To draw the blade up 
turn the screw in the opposite direction. 

A good way for beginners to test the adjustment minutely 
is to hold the plane in the left hand, face uppermost, and with 
the right hand draw a small strip of thin board (4 in. X 1 in. 



SUB FACE PLANING. 45 

X I in. will answer) over the edge. A shaving should be cut 
when drawing such a strip along the middle of the plane's 
face, as on the dotted line, a, Fig. 96, but not when drawing it 
near the edge, as on either of the dotted lines b or c. 



3E3 



Fig. 96. 

Take one of the pieces which were sawed from Fig. 92, and 
whose edges have been rough planed, hold it on the top of the 
bench against the planing pin, and cleari one of its sides with 
the finishing plane, thus : — 

Suppose three lines to be drawn lengthwise on the board 
dividing the side in four sections, as in Fig. 97. First drive 
the plane so as to have the middle of its blade cut along the 






Fig. 97. 

middle of section A, then along the middle of section B, then 
C, and lastly D. 

It is possible that this effort to plane may demonstrate that 
some farther slight movements of the screw, a, and lever, b, 
Fig. 89, are necessary, as the middle line of the shaving ought 
to come from the middle point of the blade's edge. 

The side of the board ought now to be clean. If it is not, 
repeat with four more sectional shavings when it certainly 
should be. Do not plane with fury and without thought, or 
waste the wood, as in Fig. 93. 

Clean the opposite side of the board in like manner. 



46 ELEMENTARY WOODWOBK. 

Next true the first side, thus : Provide each pupil with a 
straight edge which may be of soft wood 16 in. X 2 in. X -i^ 
in. with both edges carefully straightened and parallel. Test 
the work with this straight edge in eight places ; viz., three 
lengthwise tests, one near each edge and one along the middle, 
as on the dotted lines. Fig. 98 ; three crosswise tests, one near 
each end and one across the middle, as on the dotted lines, 
Fig. 99; and two diagonal tests, as in Fig. 100. 



Fig. 98. Fig. 99. 

Plane wherever these eight tests show the surface to be 
high, or, in other words, plane the whole surface, following the 
directions above given for cleaning the surface, with the ex- 
ception of omitting to plane such points as the above eight 
tests show to be low. This may be difficult at first, but the 
difficulty must be mastered. Write pupil's name on the first 
side when thus trued. 

True the opposite side of the board in like manner. If 
facility has been promptly acquired, the two sides will be 
parallel, since they were mill planed parallel before the pupil 
took them. If the pupil has disturbed their parallelism, it 
must be restored by setting the gauge to the thinnest corner, 
then gauging /ro7?^ the first side on both edges and both ends 
and planing to gauge-lines. 

Treat all four of the boards in like manner. Eapid work- 
men will complete the four, and perhaps more, while slower 
workmen are completing one or two. 

When one of the diagonal tests of Fig. 100 shows the board 
to be high in the middle and the other one shows it to 
be high in the corners, the surface is said to be " winding," 
and the process of planing it true is called " taking out the 



EDGE AND END PLANING. 47 

wind." To test long boards for windage, such as two feet and 
over, apply two straight edges, each I in. thick X 2 in. wide, 
one near each end, and sight across the top, as in Fig. 101. 




Fig. 100. Fig. 101. 

Notice that in this problem we have performed two opera- 
tions, first cleaning the surface and second truing it. In the 
first operation the plane may be set somewhat coarser than in 
the second, but in both it should be set as fine as the work to 
be done will allow. The grinding and oil-stoning must at 
present be done by the teacher or by some one with skill to 
do it. 

If a board to be planed is wider or narrower than 3 in., more 
or less than the four sections mentioned in connection with 
Fig. 97 will be needed. Also the width and consequent num- 
ber of these sections will be affected by the length of straight 
portion of the edge of the plane blade. 



LESSON VIII. 

EDGE AND EXD PLANING. 

In mechanics, as in arithmetic, there are four fundamental 
rules, one or more of which are practised in every problem, 
and no workman can become a skilful operator without under- 
standing and mastering them. They are as follows : — 

Eule I. Measure accurately according to plan. 



48 



ELEMEN TA R Y WO OD WORK. 



Hide II. Make perfect lines. 

Hule III. Cut rapidly near to lines. 

Mule IV. Cut carefully exactly to lines. 

The present lesson illustrates these rules clearly. 

As in arithmetic, multiplication is really a short method 
of performing uniform addition, and division a short method of 
performing uniform subtraction, and thus the four rules can 
be considered analytically as two ; so in mechanics the above 
first two rules may be condensed into the statement : Laj/ out 
work accurately, and the last two into the statement : Work 
to lines. 

Prohlevi I. Edge-PUming. — Hold in the vise one of the 
boards which were surface planed in Lesson VII., and use the 
finishing-plane (Fig. 89, Lesson YII.) to true one edge, thus : — 

Imagine a line to be drawn along the middle of the edge, as 
in Fig. 102, dividing the edge in two sections, A and B. 



Fig. 102. 




Fig. 103. 



To insure driving the plane so that the middle point of its 
cutting-edge shall glide along the middle of section A, guide 
it with the fingers of the left hand, as in Fig. 103. In this 



EDGE AND END PLANING. 



49 



guiding the left fingers are held under the plane and in con- 
tact with the wood as the plane glides along. 

Take a similar shaving from section B^ and a third one 
along the middle of the edge, imaging no line on it. 

Test the work with straight-edge lengthwise in three places 
as in Fig. 98, Lesson VII., and with try-square crosswise in 
three places, as in Fig. 104 below, and plane where these tests 
show the face to be high. Eemember the blade of the plane 
viust be kept properly adjusted, and set as line as will do the 
work required. 

A plane should never be driven over a board unless it cuts, 
as that will dull it more than the process of cutting, and a 
blade edge should never rest on the board when the plane is 
being drawn back, as that also will dull it. 

Place a tried mark, as in Fig. 105, on the first side and first 
edge finished, enclosing their common corner. This side and 
this edge are to be worked from in all future laying out. 




Fig. 104. Fig. 105. 

To finish the second edge set the gauge 2| in., Bule I. ; 
gauge on both sides from the finished edge, Itule II. ; plane 
away the surplus wood till the lines are nearly reached, using 
the roughing-plane. Ride III ; and then plane exactly to the 
lines, using the finishing-plane, Rule IV. Test with try-square 
just before reaching the lines, and complete the planing as its 
tests suggest, but do not on any account i:)lane helow the lines, 
even though the edge is not perfectly square with the side. 
It will be square, however, if skill is acquired to make it so 
just before reaching the lines, and then to keep it so as the 
lines are reached. 



50 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 



Plane all four of the boards in like manner. Kapid work- 
men will finish the four boards, and perhaps make one or two 
more, while slower workmen are making one or two only. 

Frohlem 11. End-Flaning. — Take one of the boards 
planed in Problem I., and using the knife and try-square 
as in Lesson IV., square around \ in. from one end, as in 





Fig. 106. 

Pig. 106, Uule II. In doing so always place the beam of the 
try-square against the tried side or tried edge mentioned in 
connection with Pig. 105. This is to insure accurate work. 

Place the board on the saw-block, as in Pig. 107, and saw 
very close to the lines without touching them. Rule III. 




Fig. 107. 



Hold the work in the vise and plane to the lines, using the 
block-plane as in Pig. 108, Rule IV. Test with try-square 
when nearly done so as not to plane beyond the lines. 

In case it is not yet possible for a given pupil to saw suffi- 
ciently near to the lines, the wood remaining had better be 
chipped away, as in Pig. 109, and those who are so timid as to 
saw far from the line will have to chip twice, the first chipping 
being shown at Pig. 110. 



EDGE AND END PLANING. 



51 



Let us now give more detailed instruction for this chipping 
and planing, and explain Figs. 108 to 111 more minutely. 




Fig. 108. 

In Fig. 108 the hands nearly cover up both the plane and 
the work ; but the intention is to show the palm of the left 




Fig. 109. 

hand resting on the knob or throat plate screw of the plane, 
while the left fingers rest against the edge of the work far- 



52 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 



tliest from the workman, and thus while assisting the right 
hand to drive the plane, give the workman power to stop the 
plane at will. 

In Fig. 109 the work is represented lying on a chipping- 
block. Use the 1 in. chisel, utilizing not more than one-third 
to one-half of its edge at a stroke, as shown in the figure. 
The unutilized portion of the edge will, at each stroke after 
the first, follow the cut made by the preceding stroke and so 
guide the chisel. Let the chisel start in the line, and cut a 
surface slanting a little to the right so as not to disturb the 
line on the opposite side of the board. Turn the board over 
and cut from the line on that side in like manner, when the 
end will be crowning, or roof shaped, as seen, exaggerated, at 
A. Place the board in the vise, and, operating as in Fig. 108, 
plane off this crowning portion exactly to the lines. This 
chiselling and planing may be called a triple application of 
Eule IV. 




d a 



Fig. 111. 



Fig-. 110. 



In Fig. 110 use only from one-third to one-half of the chisel- 
edge at a stroke, as was done in Fig. 109. Chip vertically, 
and proceed entirely across the board, keeping about 3^^ in. from 



EDGE AND END PLANING, 53 

the line. The work is then ready to fully treat, as in Fig. 109. 
A skilful pupil will saw close to the line, and to such these 
clipping directions are unnecessary in this connection. 

Sometimes the amount of wood outside of the lines is too 
little to saw, and would then better be chipped away, instead, 
in accordance with Fig. 110, making one cut about ^ in. from 
the lines, then a second cut 3^2 in. from the line, and finally 
cutting, as in Fig. 109, and then planing as before. 

Some important differences exist between the necessities of 
side and edge planing on the one hand and end-planing on the 
other. 

First, In side and edge planing a shaving is usually taken 
along the entire length of the board, as previously stated. In 
end-planing this must not be done, since the wood will be 
splintered when the plane passes off, as at A, Fig. 111. To 
avoid this, plane a few times from a, about two-thirds of the 
way across the end to b, and then a few times from c to d, 
thus alternating till the end is complete. 

Second, When planing sides or edges, be careful to hold the 
plane parallel to the direction of the shaving, as in Fig. 103. 
When planing ends, it is better to hold the block-plane at an 
angle to the direction of the shaving, as in Fig. 108, more 
clearly illustrated in the diagram. Fig. 112, which shows a 
block-plane commencing and finishing a stroke. 




Fig. 112. 

Measure 8 in. from the finished end, square around, saw 
(chisel if necessary), and plane to lines as before. 

Treat all four boards in like manner; though, as stated 
before, rapid workmen will complete all four, and perhaps 
more, while slower workmen are making but one or two. 



54 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 



Mark according to power finally acquired in accurate 
planing. . 

FrobI 6771 III. To make a B7'ead-Board. — For practice in 
truing wider surfaces than the preceding, take a white wood 
board | in. thick, roughly sawed, 12|- in. X ^i in., true both 
sides, as in Lesson VII., and both edges and ends as in the 
present lesson, making it 12 in. X 9 in. On one side of 
the board measure from each corner 3 in. along each edge and 
2 in. along each end,* and draw pencil-lines, as in Fig. 113. 




Fig. 113. 

Square across edges and ends, and make corresponding lines 
on the opposite side. Saw near to and plane exactly to these 




lines, thus observing all four of the fundamental rules. Cham- 
fer the corners as follows : Hold the work in the vise, and with 
fine-set plane take off the corners, making instead new faces 



USE OF BIT AND Bli AD-AWL. 



55 



I in. wide at an angle of 45 degrees with the sides of the board, 
giving the finished work the appearance of Fig. 114. The 
larger view in this figure is a perspective, and allows only four 
of the chamfered corners to show. The smaller view at A is 
a section. 

Take a quarter of a sheet of No. -J sand-paper, fold it over 
a block, and sand-paper the completed work, without marring 
any corners. This board is a useful article in the home to lay 
a loaf of bread on while cuttins: it. 



LESSON IX. 



USE OF BIT AND BRAD-AWL. 



P7'ohlem I. Boring across the Grain. — Take one of the 
boards 8 in. X 2| in. X I i^^- phaned in the last two lessons, 
and set the gauge to one-half its thickness, thus : — 

Measure the thickness of the board, set the gauge one-half 
of the amount, and on one edge of the board gauge a point 
from each side, as in Fig. 115. 




WW'VWW i V V 



Fig. 116. 

If these points coincide, as at A, the gauge is correctly 
adjusted. If they do not coincide, as at B, change the gauge 
slightly and gauge two more points, thus trying till they do 
coincide. 

Gauge from the tried face (See Fig. 105, Lesson VIII.) on 
both edges of the board, and with the knife square around 



56 



ELEMENTAU Y WOOD WORK. 



at I in. from one end and afterwards at every | in., as in 
Fig. 116. 

Place the board in the vise with an edge uppermost, taking 
care that it is secured in a horizontal position. With one leg 
of the dividers held vertically, press a point at each intersec- 
tion of lines deep enough to hold the spur of the bit. 

Fasten the ^ in. auger bit in the bit-brace, place its spur in 
one of these points, stand in front of the bench, and holding 
the brace as in Fig. 417, turn it two or three revolutions, 
watching to see that it stands vertical as viewed from that 
position. 





Fig. 118. Fig. 117. 

Cease boring, move to a position at the end of the bench, as 
in Fig. 118, and observing the above directions turn the brace 
two or three more revolutions. Resume the first position and 
repeat. Alternate thus between these two positions, revolving 
the brace two or three times in each, taking great care 



that 



USE OF BIT AND BRAD-AWL. 57 

the bit stands vertical as viewed from either position, and 
that it is never pushed from or toward you, thereby disturb- 
ing the vertical adjustment of the previous position. The 
first incli of depth in boring will give direction to the hole. 
It cannot be changed much after that. 

When the bit is nearly through the board, place the finger 
underneath at every revolution of the brace, and when the 
spur is felt, cease boring. Now turn the brace backward two 
revolutions to loosen the spur, and then draw it out, either 
without revolving it at all, or revolving it foricard. This is 
to clean the boring-chips out of the hole, for if the bit is 
revolved backward while it is being withdrawn the boring 
cliips will remain in the hole. Note this and remember it. 

Bore at every intersection of lines in like manner. The 
under side of the work will present a succession of points 
nearly or quite agreeing with the intersection of lines thereon. 

Mark 10 off from 100 for every point that varies \ in. from 
the intersection which it. should meet. 

It will be noticed that w^e have used the smallest auger bit, 
though a larger one is represented in Figs. 117 and 118, for clear- 
ness of illustration. We use the \ in. because all the princi- 
ples involved can be taught w^ith it as well as with any size, 
because greater care is necessary with it than with a larger 
one, and because it is found that notwithstanding its frailty 
the percentage of breakage is too small to need taking into 
account. 

Problem. II. Boring iv'ith the Grai7i. — Take another of 
the boards planed in the last two lessons, cut it 5|- in. long, 
gauge midway of the thickness on each edge and end, and 
gauge at successive H- in. from the tried edge (See Fig. 105, 
Lesson VIII. for definition of tried edge), on each side and 
end, as in Fig. 119. 

Place the work in the vise with an end uppermost. It 
should stand exactly vertical, with one-half of it buried in the 
vise. Bore as directed in Figs. 117 and 118 till one-half of 



58 



ELEMENT ABY WOOBfvORK. 



the spiral portion of the bit is buried in the wood, as in 
Fig. 120, when the bit should be withdrawn to clean out the 
boring-chips from the hole. Use the same precaution in 
withdrawing as directed in Problem I. 



n^^^ 



^4m 



Fig. 119. 



Fig. 120. 




Fig. 121. 



Insert the bit in the hole, and bore till the spiral is all 
buried, as in Fig. 121, then withdraw as before. 

Insert the bit in the hole, and bore an inch deeper and with- 
draw, and so continue till the bit comes through at the lower 
end. 

These directions concerning cleaning out chips must be 
observed or the bit will be either broken or bent. If they are 
observed, it need never be injured. 

Mark 10 off from 100 for every hole that comes out I in. 
from its proper intersection. 

Frohlem. III. Boring from both Ends. — Take one of the 
boards planed in last lesson, gauge it as in Problem II., and 
bore it as in that problem about 5 in. deep. Invert it in the 



USE OF BIT AND BBAB-AWL. 



59 



vise, and bore from the other end till the holes meet mid- 
way. 

Mark 10 off from 100 for every hole which you cannot see 
through. 

Problem IV. Use of Drill-Bit. — Take one of the boards 
planed in the last two lessons, make it 2 in. wide, gauge and 
square as in Problem I., and bore holes as in that problem, 
using the ^^ in. drill-bit. At first this bit will need no down- 
ward pressure beyond the weight of the bit-stock ; but when 
the point of the bit has descended half an inch in the wood it 
will be necessary to hold back on it, or it will descend faster 
than it can cut, and the result will be a small rough hole, and 
perhaps a broken bit. Note this also and remember it. 

Problem V. Use of Brad-Awl. — Take another of the 
boards planed in the last two lessons or a similar one ; gauge 
on both sides at every \l in., and square around at f in. from 
one end, and then at every f in., as in Fig. 122. 



\N\\\\:\\\\\ 


\ 






\ 






; 


. 


. 


, 








1 


\ 






1 


. 


, 


I 




1 


\ 


I 


1 




: 


. 


1 


] 


. 


! 


1 


M'-: 


''x' 




■"^ 




Jr^ 


i; 








'% 




Fig. 122. 



Fig. 123. 



With medium-sized awl bore from the intersection of lines 
on one side of the board a little more than half way through, 
as in Fig. 123, then turn the board over and bore from the 
intersection on the other side to meet the first bored holes, 
sighting from two directions at right angles to each other, as 
in boring with the auger bit, in order to insure a vertical hole. 

Mark 2 off from 100 for every hole which you cannot see 
through. 



60 



ELEMENTARY WOODWOBK. 



LESSON X. 



SHOVE -PLANING. 



Wood as thin as J in. cannot be easily planed square on 
edges and ends by holding it in the vise, and resort is had to 
a contrivance known as the shove-plane, or shoot-plane board 
(Fig. 124), which mEjy be bolted to the front right end of the 
bench by two carriage-bolts, one of which is shown in front 
section in Fig. 125. This arrangement provides for its being 
quickly put in position or removed. 




^xWW^ 



Fig. 1-i. 



Fig. 125. 



The surfaces A and B are made parallel to each other, and 
the edges C and D are perpendicular to them. 

Froblem I. Finishing to a JVidth. — Provide for each 
pupil a J in. pine board about 5 ft. long by 5 in. wide. Saw 
from it roughly a piece 4J in. long. Be sure that the plane- 
blade is finely set, as directed in Lesson YII. Lay the work 
on the surface A, with its end resting against D, its edge over- 
hanging C about \ in. and hold it in that position firmly with 
the left hand as in Fig. 126. Lay the finishing-plane on its 
right side on the surface B, and holding it firmly in contact 



SUO VE-PLANING. 



61 



with that surface, make with it the least number of strokes 
necessary to true the edges of the work, as in Fig. 126. 




Fig. 126. 



With the help of the rule set the gauge f in. plus, as in 
Fig. 127. 






















.1.1.1. >1. 




i 

.1.1.1. .I.l.l.f 


;l'l 


a. ' 


r^M.|.,.|T 













Fig. 127. 



The help of the rule is required since the gauge-point is 
not always accurately against the zero graduation of the 
gauge. 



62 ELEMENT ABY WOODWORK. 

By the term plus is meant a small fraction over f in., as is 
seen in Fig. 127, where the gauge-point does not meet the 
centre of the f in. graduation, but meets that side of it which 
is farthest from zero. 

With the gauge set as directed, gauge from the finished 
edge on both sides of the work, draw the knife-blade a few 
times in the gauge-line, as in Fig. 128, on both sides, and the 
wood will split apart. 




Fig. 128. 

Shove-plane the split edge of the f piece just enough to true 
it, and leave it f in. Again we must press the importance of 
having the plane set fine. Let accurate workmen make as 
many pieces f in. wide as they have time, while slower work- 
men are mastering the difficulties of making one or two. 

Problem II. Fmishing to a Length. — Take one of the 
pieces planed to a width in Problem I., hold it as in Fig. 129, 
and plane an end, using the block-plane finely set. 

In this operation the face of the block-plane needs to be 
held against the shoulder C, and a little more force is used 
with the right hand to keep the plane in contact with C than 
is used with the left hand to keep the work in contact with 
the plane. 

It will be found helpful to divide every shove of the plane 
into four actions, thus : — 



SHO VE-PLA NING. 



63 



First, Hold the plane very firmly against C and B, with its 



edge in front of the work. 




Fiff. 129. 



Second, Slide the work firmly against the plane, keeping it 
in contact with D. 

Third, Shove the plane forward, keeping both it and the 
work in place. 

Fourth, Eelax the muscles of both hands, and bring the 
plane back, ready to repeat the first action. 

A few shoves of the plane should finish one end of the work, 
and, if the shove-plane block is in order, the worli will be true. 
The plane, however, must be l^ept finely set, or the accuracy of 
the shove-plane board will be destroyed. 

From the finished end of the work measure 2 in. jAus, 
square around using knife and try-square, saw near to lines 
using 10 in. back-saw, and saw block similar to Fig. 107, 
Lesson VIII., and shove plain exactly to line. 

Finish several boards thus to a length, and lay their sides 
together, as in Fig. 130. If the work has all been accurate, 
they will agree with each other in lengths and widths. 



64 



ELEMEN TA R Y WO 01) \fOEK. 



Lay their edges together, as in Fig. 131, and four of them 
will cover 3 in. width. Lay their ends together, as in Fig. 





Fig. 130, 



Fig. 131. 



132, and three of them will make a length of 6 in., or six of 
12 in. 



^ 



Fig 132 



Frohlem III. To make from \ in. Stock a Box 4 in. X 2 in. 



Fig. 133. 



X 1 in- Outside Measure. — Make a full-sized drawing, show- 



SHOVE-PLANING. 



65 



ing three views of the box, top, side, and end, as in 
Fig. 133. 

From a study of these drawings obtain the dimensions of 
the bottom board, and also the sides and ends. Set the figures 
down in some convenient place. According to the figures 
make one bottom board, two sides and two ends. Use f in. 
No. 20 steel wire brads, and nail first the sides and ends 
together to form a frame, putting two nails in each end of a 
side piece spaced as in Fig. 134. 




Fig. 134. 

ISTail the bottom to the frame, spacing the nails as in Fig. 
135. Before nailing the sides and ends, however, hold them 
together and see if they make a width just equal to the 
bottom. 



2i 



m. 



Let accurate rapid workmen make a box 5 in. X 
X li in. 

Froblem IV. ■ Fig. 136 is a full-size end view of a box 
whose frame has the same dimensions as Problem III., and 
which has a chamfered bottom of -]- in. stock, and a chamfered 
and rabbited cover of | in. stock. Lay out the chamfer lines 



66 



ELEMEN TA E Y WO ODWORK. 



on the edges and ends of boards with the gauge. Lay out the 
chamfer lines on the sides of boards with pencil, or if gauge 
is used make very light lines. Lay out lines for rabbit with 
gauge where they run lengthwise of the grain, and with try- 
square and knife where they run crosswise ; plane the cham- 
fers. Cut the rabbit with the knife. 



Fig. 136. 

Two partitions fitted as in the half-size views, Fig. 137, will 
divide the box in three compartments convenient for holding 
postage-stamps. 







>- 


1 






















1 








N- 



Fig. 137 



SQUABE, PBISM, AND CYLINDER. 



67 



LESSON XI. ' 

SQUARE, PRISM, AND CYLINDER. 

Prohlem I. Square Prism 8 in. X If ^n. X If in. — Supply 
each pupil with a piece of 1| in. planed pine plank 8J in. long 
X any width. Draw pencil-lines lengthwise on one side of it 
2 in. apart. Square lines across each end, and join them by 
lines on the back side, as in Fig. 138. 



\ 


\ ;\ i\ i\ i\ r\ 




-V--- 

V 

N 


I 
_ 4, 


-A,- — 




• 
1 

-k 

V 

\ 

X 

\ 

\ 


-A 

V 



Fig. 138. 

Place the work in the vise, and saw on these lines. See 
that the saw keeps on the lines on the back side of the work 
as well as on the front side. If difficulty is experienced, it 
may be wise to occasionally turn the work about in the vise, 
so as to bring that which is the back side to the front. Saw 
at least two pieces. Eapid workmen, if accurate, may saw 
five or six. 



68 



ELEMENTARY WOODWOBK. 



Eough-plane the two sawed sides of each piece sufficiently 
to remove saw-marks, observing carefully all directions given 
in Lesson VII. 

Finish-plane one side of a piece as directed in connection 
with Figs. 97-100, Lesson VII., and write your name on it, as 
in Fig. 139. 



Mt^ME 



Fig. 139. 



Plane an adjacent side, following directions given in Prob- 
lem I., Lesson VIII., except imagining a division in three sec- 
tions instead of two. When this second side is complete, 
place tried marks on it, as in Fig. 140. 



— V- 

NAME 



liO. 



Set the gauge If in. johis, and gauge from the first finished 
side on both of the sides adjacent to it, as in Fig. 141. 



RIAME 



Fig. HI. 



Kough-plane nearly to these lines, if necessary, Hide III., 
and finish-plane exactly to them. Hide IV., when a third 
§ide of the prism is completed. 



SQUARE, PRISM, AND CYLINDER. 



69 



With tlie same setting of the gauge, gauge from the second 
finished side, and complete the fourth side of the prism in 
like manner. Use try-square and knife, and square around 
about i in. from one end, as in Fig. 142. 




Hold the work on the saw-block, as in Fig. 107, Lesson 
yill., and saw about one-third of the way through. Turn it 
one-quarter of a revolution from you, and saw likewise. Turn 
it another quarter and repeat, and still another quarter and 
saw completely off. By thus turning and partial sawing, one 
can saw closer to the line than otherwise. 

Hold the work in the vise, and plane, as in Fig. 108, Lesson 
VIII. Plane from all four sides and corners to and a little 
past the centre, observing Rule IV. 

From the end so finished measure 8 in. j9/?^5, and finish the 
other end. Make three such prisms 8 in. X 1| in. X If in. 

Problem 11. Octagonal Prism. — Describe on drawing-paper 
a circle 1| in. diameter, and draw a square around it, as in 
Fig. 143. 




Draw also the line a h at the angle of 45°. The distance 
a c measures -| in. ^_>^?<5. Set the gauge ^ in., and gauge two 



70 



ELEMENTARY W003W0EK. 



lines on each of the four sides of one of the prisms, as in 



Fig. 144. 



Hold the work inthe vise, and plane to these lines, as in 
Fig. 145, when you have an octagonal prism. 



Fig. 145. 

Problem III. Cylinder. — Make a second octagonal prism, 
and exercise skill to so plane away its corners as to make a 
16-sided prism. Again plane away these corners so as to make 
a 32-sided prism, then a 64-sided prism, and sand-paper it to a 
cylinder. 

For another method centre each end of a If in. square prism, 
describe If in. circles thereon, and plane the corners away till 
these circles are reached. 



LESSON XII. 



USE OF CHISEL AND GOUGE. 



Some instructions were given in Lesson VIII. concerning 
handling the chisel which are not necessary to repeat here. 

Problem I. Locked Joint. — Make, as in Lessons VII. and 
VIIL, two boards 4^ in. X 2 in. X f i^^- 



USE OF CHISEL AND GOUGE. 71 

Gauge from one edge of each on both of its sides | in. 
Place points on the edge at every f in., and through them, 
square lines across the edge ; also continue the lines, squaring 
on each side jis far as to the gauged line, when the work will 
appear as in Fig. 146. 



K 


;\;\:\:\:\:\ 




J .. 


, 


i .. . 


J 




-k 
















X 


\ 







Fig. H6. 



Eemove each alternate section by sawing near to lines and 
then chiselling exactly to them, as in Fig. 147. 



xNxNnK 

, A^ 



Fig. H7. 

When accurately made, the two boards will fit together, as 
in Fig. 148. 



Fig. 148. 



72 



ELEMENTARY WO(fDWORK. 



Problem II. Chiselled Pyramids. — Make a board 5 in. X 3 
in. X 8 i^^' ^^^ one side of it draw lines lengthwise at every 
^ in., using rule and pencil, and crosswise at every ^ in., using 
try-square and pencil. 

From that side gauge -J in. on each edge and end, and 
square down to these last lines from the lines on the top, 
when the work will appear as in Fig. 149. 



\\\\\\\\\\\\\ 


v\\\\\\\\\\\\\ 


k\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ 


\\r\\\\\\\\\\\\\ 


\<\\\\\\\\\\\\\ 


\\^ 


\\\\\\\\\\\\ 


\\i 


i: 


\ 





Fig. HU. 

Make saw-kerfs on alternate crosswise lines, as in Fig. 150. 
Draw necessary bevelled lines on each end at an angle of 




Fig. 150. 

45°, and chisel lengthwise to them, giving the work the 
appearance of Fig. 151. 




E^^ 



\ 




Fig. 151. 



USE OF CHISEL AND GOUGE. 



73 



With rule and pencil restore the points that are to be apices 
of pyramids. Make a cardboard templet to the angle which 
the base of a pyramid is to make with an edge ; use it to draw 
necessary pencil lines, and chisel V grooves crosswise of the 
board, leaving rows of square pyramids, as in Fig. 152. 




Problem III. Chamfered Corners. — Make a square prism 
8 in. X If i^i- X If in. Kapid workmen may plane the ends. 
Square around fine pencil lines 1 in, and 1| in. from each end. 
Set the gauge | in., and gauge two lines on every side between 
the two If in. squared lines, as in Fig. 153. Join the points 
a and h. 





Fig. 153. 



Put a thin keen edge on the 1 in. chisel, and cut to these 
lines, as in Fig. 154, 

A corner cut away in this manner is called a chamfer. 
Pupils wdio work slowly need not plane this block on the 
end. 



74 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 

Problem IV. Use of Outside Groimd Gouge. — Eepeat the 





Fig. 154. 



last problem, using f in. outside ground-gouge, and give the 
finished work the appearance of Fig. 155. 





Fig. 155. 

Problem V. Use of Inside Ground-Gouge across the Grain. 
— Make a board 5| in. X 3i in. X i in. On one side of it 
square knife-lines across at every f in., and cut out each 




alternate section with the ^ in. inside ground-gouge, making 
semi-cylindrical grooves, as in Fig. 156. 

Test the accuracy of the work by using a right-triangie. 



HAND-SCREW AND SCBEW-DRIVEE. 



75 



The corner of the try-square blade will answer, as in Fig. 157. 
The value of this test depends on the fact that every angle 
inscribed in a semi-circle is a right-angle. 




Fig. 157. 

Problem VI. Use of the Inside Gouge Lengthwise of the 
Qrain. — On the opposite side of the board used in Problem 
v., gauge lines at every f in., and, operating in a manner 




Fig. 15S. 



similar to Problem V., make semi-cylindrical grooves in 
alternate sections, as in Fig. 158. 



LESSON XIII. 

HAND-SCREW AND SCREW-DRIVER. 

Problem /. Adjusting the Hand-Screw. — The use of the 
hand-screw is to hold work in place on the bench, or to hold 
two pieces firmly together ^vhile glue is drying. It is neces- 
sary to keep the jaws constantly parallel, else inconvenience 



76 



ELEMENTARY WOOD WORK. 



will result in adjusting, or injury in clamping. If through 
inadvertence the parallelism of the jaws is disturbed, one of 
the screws must be turned independently of the other, suffi- 
cient to correct it. Fig. 159 shows a hand screw correctly 
adjusted, that is, with its jaws parallel. 




Fisr. 159. 



Set the hand-screw so that the distance between the jaws 
near the inner screw (see arrow-heads, Fig. 159) shall measure 
a given amount, as 2 in. Next set it to some other given 
amount, as 4 in. To do this, grasp the outer screw with the 
right hand, and the inner screw with the left. Do not let 
either screw slip in the hand. Revolve the hand-screw, causing 
the upper portion to move from you and the lower portion 
toward you, till you judge the jaws to be 4 in. apart, then 
lay the tool on the bench and measure it. If the measurement 
is near 4 in., make it exactly so by turning the inner screw 
without raising the tool from the bench, but be sure to turn 
the outer screw at the same time, so as to keep the jaws 
parallel. Next, set the hand-screw to 3 in., which will neces- 
sitate revolving in the opposite direction. 

In this manner practise the class in setting the hand screw 
to various measurements. 



HAND-SCEEW AND SCREW-DEIVEIi. 



77 



FroUemlL Clam2n7ig- Work. — Take two blocks 4 in. X 
2 in. X i in. I'lace them with their sides together, and set 
the clamps to hold them lightly, as in Fig. 160. 



CO 




mm\m\mm' & l ^ 



Fig. 160. 



Next, tighten the grip by a hard turn of the outer screw. 

Loosen the grip by first loosening the outer screw. Place 
the blocks with their edges together, as in Fig. 161, and clamp 
them in that position. 



\ \ 




Fig. 161. 



Loosen again, and place the blocks with their ends together, 
as in Fig. 162, and clamp them. 



78 



ELEMENTARY W00i)W0RK. 



Place the blocks with the edge of one to a side of the other, 
as in Fig. 163 and clamp them. 



\ 



Fiff. 10:^ 



Fig. 163. 



Place them with the end of one to the side of the other, as 
in Fig. 164 and clamp them. 

Place them with the end of one to the edge of the other, as 
in Fig. 165 and clamp them. 





Fig. 1C4. 



Fig. 165. 



Prohlem III. Screw-Driving. — Take any two waste pieces 
of I in. pine, 8 in. X 2 in. will answer. On the piece to be 



lOG. 



used for the upper board place several points in a zig-zag line, 
as in Fig. 166, about ^ in. from each edge, the points nearest 
the ends being: about 1 in. therefrom. 



UANB-SCEEW AND SCEEW-DBIVEB- 79 

Hold tlie board in the vise. Use the 3^2 in. drill-bit, and 
bore holes entirely through it. No holes are needed in the 
under board, unless the screw is so near an end or edge 
as to be liable to split the wood, since screws will turn into 
soft pine on account of their gimlet points. 

Insert a 1^ in. No. 11 screw in each hole, and, placing the 
boards together, turn down each screw till its head begins to 
touch the wood, then press hard on the driver, turn one-half a 
revolution, and release. The object of this pressure is to force 
the screw into the wood, and the release after each semi- 
revolution is to prevent the driver from slipping out of the 
head of the screw. Keep repeating this process till the screw 
is forced into the wood with its top flush, or even, with the 
surface of the wood, as in Fig. 167. It will be noticed that 
we did not countersink the upper board for screw-heads, as 
they will force into soft pine without it. 



\ ® 


<s> 


C5> 


<S> 


•\ 









Fig. 167. 

In driving No. 11 screws into hard wood it is necessary to 
bore with the ^V in. drill-bit into the under piece, and to coun- 
tersink the upper. It is also well to put tallow on the screw 
when about to turn it into hard wood. 

To recapitulate : A screw requires a hole slightly larger than 
itself through the first board, no hole in the second, if soft 
wood, unless too near the end or edge, but a hole in the second 
board, if it be hard wood, just large enough to prevent the 
screw from being broken by the force required to drive it. Also 
the upper board if hard wood needs to be countersunk for the 
screw-head, while if soft wood it does not. 



80 



ELEMENTAE Y TFOOD WORK. 



LESSON XIV. 

TO MAKE A PAIR OF SCALES. 

It is both profitable and interesting to close a series of 
elementary lessons by making some project or article of use. 
This lesson will describe one such article, and Lesson XV. 
another. Fig. 168 is a perspective view of a pair of scales 
which the average pupil can make sufficiently accurate to 
answer the purpose of weighing letters and papers for mail. 




Fig. 168. 

Fig. 169 shows three orthographic views of it, one-fifth size. 
This would make the base a, 8 in. X 4 in. X \ ii^- ; the post h, 
7 in. X I in- X | in. ; the beam c, 10 in. X h in. X i in. ; and 
the pans d, each 4 in. X 4 in. X I in. Fig. 170 is a sectional 
view of a portion of the base, full size, with the post mortised 
into it. Fig. 171 is a quarter size elevation and plan of the 
post, having a tenon on the lower end, a uniform chamfer on 
the top, and a bevelled chamfer along most of its length, 
though any other design for ornamentation will answer just 
as well. 



TO MAKE A PAIR OF SCALES. 



81 



\/> I- fr=T T !: 

/V I ^ ^ 




Fig. 169. 




Fi°:. 170. 



82 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. 



Fig. 172 is a full-size plan, front and end elevations of a 
portion of the beam showing places cut away on each side, to 



FiK. 172. 



prevent friction of the cords which suspend the pans. 

Fig. 173 is a full-size view of one corner of a pan, showing 
the hole in which the cord is tied. This hole may be | in. 
from an end of the pan and ^ in. from an edge. 




Fig. 173. 



When the parts are all made and sand-papered smooth, glue 
the tenon of the post in the mortise of the base, and then, 
using a camel-hair brush about 1^ in. wide, put a coat of thin 
shellac on all of the parts. Let this dry a few hours, sand- 
paper it sufficiently to smooth all roughness, and apply a 
second coat of thin shellac. Thin shellac is specified because, 
if it be applied too thick, a patched surface will be the result. 
ISTo harm need result from too thin shellac, as, in that case, a 
third coat may be applied. 

Shellac dries very fast, and, in applying it, take a suffi- 
cient quantity of it in the brush to cover the wood in any 
given place at the first stroke, and do not make a second 
stroke in any given jDlace if possible. Lastly, tie on the 



TO MAKE A PAIR OF SCALES. 



83 



cords and put in the nail for the beam to swing on. The 
hole in the beam for the nail on which it swings, and the 
groove in the post for the beam to play in, must both be 
of ample dimensions to guarantee no friction. Care is 
needed to tie the cords of uniform length. To facilitate 
this make a fixture, as in Fig. 174. 



3^^S§ 



1^ 


. 


^1 


A 


c 


A 


. 


6 


. 


M /• \ 


/ l\ :' 


§ 


a 


V 1 




Fig. 174. 



This consists of a base a, standard b, cleat c, and two 
buttons d, all of | in. pine. By means of this fixture the 
beam and pans are held in proper relative position while 
the cords are being tied. 

Fig. 175 shows an end view of the beam with a cord whose 
centre lies in the hole, and whose halves are then tied when 
the two ends can be attached to corners of a pan. Fig. 176 
shows two such cords tied in one hole, leaving four projecting 
ends. 

Care must be taken to have the holes in the ends of the 
beam, where the strings are tied, equidistant from the hole 
in the centre of the beam. 

When the work is put together, if one pan proves to be 
heavier than the other, trim it till they are alike. 



84 



ELEMENTARY WOObWOEK. 

For a poise, bind four 10 d. wire nails in a bundle by means 





Fig. 175. Fig. i: 

of two pieces of No. 19 soft iron wire, each 6|- in. long, as in 
Fig. 177, and the whole will weigh one ounce. Place this 



Fig. 177. 




Fig. 1 



TO MAKE A BEVELLED BOX OR CARD-RECEIVER. 85 

poise in one pan of the scales, and a sealed letter in the other. 
If the letter rises, the U. S. mail will carry it to its destination 
for two cents. If it balances, or falls, they will ask more. 

If desired, a neat set of poises can be made of cast-iron. 
Eig. 178 shows three drawn full size. 

These need to be cast a small fraction too heavy, and then 
filed to exact weight, being tested by accurate sensitive scales, 
each pupil filing and testing his own. 



LESSON XV. 

TO MAKE A BEVELLED BOX OR CARD-RECEIVER. 

In this lesson, we will treat of surfaces which are bevelled 
with respect to each other, and for a project make a box with 
bevelled sides. 

Pi'oblem I. The Bevelled Joint. — Fig. 179 is two views, 




tt Sin. '- ^ . ,1 

T — 7 




Fig. 179. 



Fig. 180. 



86 



ELEMENTARY WOOBWOBK. 



a plan and elevation of the joint to be made. Fig. 180 is a 
perspective view. 

Draw the plan and elevation full size, and the slant height, 
B C will be found to be 3^3^ in. 

According to instructions given in Lessons VII. and VIII., 
finish a board 10 in. X 3i\ in. X i in. 

On a waste board having a true edge, E B, Fig. 181, draw 
the line A D square with the edge, make the distances A C 
= 3 in., A B = l^in., and draw the line B C, which will 
= 3tk in. 



/I 



ly 



Fig. 181. 




Fig. 182. 



Set the bevel to this line, as in Fig. 182, and plane one edge 
of the 10 in. X ^-■^^ in. board to fit the bevel so set. The work 



will appear as in 
views of it. 



the outlines of Fig. 183, which shows two 




On the waste board, Fig. 181, make a second standard angle 
by making A E = 1 in. and A F = Sj'V in., and drawing E F. 
Set the bevel to this second standard angle, use it to draw the 
two bevelled lines shown in Fig. 183, continue these lines 



TO MAKE A BEVELLED BOX OB CABD-BECEIVEB. 87 

square across the bevelled edge of the work, use the bevel on 
the back side of the work, and finish by drawing such lines as 
are required, having a direction of their own on the squared 
edge. Saw near to the lines, plane exactly to them, and Fig. 
183 will appear as Fig. 184. 




Fig. 184. 

Brad-awl three holes in the longer piece L, giving them a 
direction parallel to the bevelled end and edge, and, using 
2 in. No. 13 steel-wire finish nails, nail it to the shorter piece 
S. Cut away the small portion of L that now stands above 
the plane of the upper edge of S, and the work will appear as 
in Fig. 180. 

Fold a small piece of No. ^ sand-paper over a small block, 
and sand the work, being careful not to disturb the corners. 
Apply a coat of clean, thin shellac, using a camel's-hair brush 
about 1^ in. wide. Let it dry an hour or more-, sand off all 
roughness, and apply a second coat of shellac. 




Problem II. The Bevelled Box. — Fig. 185 is a perspective 
view of the bevelled box which is made from f in. white wood. 
Fig. 186 is three orthographic views. 



88 



ELEMENTARY WOOBWORE. 



Draw an elevation of the angle full size, as in Fig. 187, and 
the slant height will be found to be 2| in. 



tfr - 


12Tn. 




n 


^ 




7 






C 










/ 




k 


03 


# 


* 



l^ 




( ) 




Fig. 186. 

Make from | in. white wood two side-pieces 12-J in. rough 
length X 2^ in. finish width, and two end-pieces 8 in. rough 
length X 2^ in. finish width. 

Take a waste board and lay out on it two standard angles, 



as m 



Fis. 188. Make ab = l 



and 



— 9 



z m. 



Set the 



-lin. 




el al \a 



Fig. 187. 



Fig. 188. 



bevel to the line he, and bevel the under edge of both side- 
pieces and both end-pieces. Make ae = 1 in., and af= 2i in., 
set the bevel to the line ef, and lay out both ends of the four 
pieces in a manner similar to Problem I., making the two side- 
pieces each 12 in. long on the upper or square edge, and the 
two end-pieces 7^ in. long on the upper or square edge. Saw 
near to the lines, and plane exactly to them. 



TO MAKE A BEVELLED BOX OR CARD-RECEIVER. 89 

Brad-awl tliree holes in each end of the side-pieces, in a 
manner similar to Problem I., and nail the four finished pieces 
together with 1^ in. No. 16 steel-wire brads. Trim off the slight 
projections on each of the four upper corners, as was done in 
Problem I. Use a 22-ino iron jointer to make the lower edge 
of the frame more true. Make a board as long and as wide as 
the lower edge of the frame ; on the upper side of this board 
scribe a line y\ in., or one-half of the thickness of the stock, 
from each end and from each edge, as in Fig. 189. 




Fig. 1S9. 



Fig. 192. 



Bore three holes, the first one being an inch from the end, 
on each of these lines, using the bevel set to the angle gbOj 
Fig. 188, and located as in Fig. 189 to give direction to the 
awl. While doing this, keep the work on a waste board. 




Make for the partition or handle a | white wood board 12 
in. rough length X 3f in. finish width. Place it on the box, 
as in Fig. 190, and placing the try-square as in that figure, make 



90 ELEMENTARY WO OB WORK. 

a knife-point on the under edge of the work. Eepeat at the 
other end. The distance between these points is the length 
of the bottom of the box inside. From these points square 
across the under edge of the partition. With the bevel set 
by one end of the box, inside, finish laying out one end of the 
partition, then set the bevel by the opposite end of the box, 
and lay out the other end of the partition. Saw near to the 
lines, and plane exactly to them. The partition will appear 
as in the outline of ^ig. 191. 



d c 



QSHE) 




Fig. 191. Fig. 193. 

Find the middle point of the lower edge, and square up 
from it a fine pencil-line on one side of the board. Set the 
gauge 1 in., and gauge from the upper edge of the board on 
the same side a line about li in. each way from the squared 
line. From the intersection of these lines, measure 1-| in. each 
way, and place two points on the gauge-line, as in Fig. 191. 
With these three points as centres, bore with the f in. auger- 
bit three holes as shown by the circles on Fig. 191, till the spur 
of the bit is felt on the back side of the work, then turn the 
work over and bore from these points to meet the first boring. 
Set the gauge to agree with the upper and with the lower 
edges of the bored holes successively, and gauge lines on both 
sides. Cut to these lines with the small blade of the knife 
and round the edge of the cutting, as in the end view, 
Fig. 192, page 89. 

Place the partition in position in the box, and make pencil- 
points at a and b, Fig. 193, where the upper edge of each end- 
piece of the box meets the partition. From c measure If in. 
each way on the upper edge of the partition, and place points 



GRINDING-TOOLS. 91 

at d and e. Draw the lines ad and be, saw near to tliem, and 
plane exactly to them. Round the edge adeb, as in the end- 
view of it, Fig. 192. 

Nail the partition in place, using two 1-in. No. 18 steel-wire 
brads in each end, and three in the bottom. 

Sand-paper the box, being careful of the corners. Stain it 
a neat cherry color, using burnt sienna thinned with turpen- 
tine, applied with a bristle brush, and rubbed off with cloth. 
After drying a few hours, shellac it as the joint was done. 

Shellac may be used without staining, or the box may 
receive two coats of furniture varnish. If varnish is used, 
rub the first coat, when it has dried hard, with pumice and 
oil instead of sand-paper. 



LESSON XVI. 

GRINDING-TOOLS. 



The power of sharpening tools is superior to the power of 
using them ; and though a few pupils may acquire it early in 
their practice of using tools, the majority of grammar pupils 
will need assistance from the teacher for some time, yet class 
instruction should be given, and individual practice had. To 
accomplish this, provide half a dozen cheap 1-in. shank chisels. 
Have, if possible, at least three grindstones, though one can 
be made to answer. One reason for mentioning three is that 
much grinding may be' done, and another is that one stone 
may be kept for each of three varieties of work; viz., a coarse 
stone for plane blades and wide chisels, where much stock 
needs to be removed ; a finer one for narrow chisels and knife- 
blades, and a third stone, also fine, for outside ground gouges. 
The inside ground gouges need an emery-wheel to grind them. 
Their use, however, in these lessons can be dispensed with. 



92 ELEMENTARY J^OODWORK. 

All three stones may be used for chisels and planes indis- 
criminately when necessary, if kept trued, but the third stone 
is mentioned for gouge-grinding, as gouges make such grooves 
in a stone as to make it exceedingly difficult, if not impossi- 
ble, for an amateur to use it for planes. For the coarse stone, 
the quarry at Norwalk, 0., is excellent. For the finer ones, 
nothing excels Nova Scotia stone. 




Fig. 194. 

Make a rest to support the chisel-handle or the upper end 
of a plane-blade while grinding. It will prove a great con- 
venience, as it makes the Avork easier, expedites it, and in- 
sures accuracy. An excellent device for this purpose is shown 
in Fig. 194, where a chisel is held in position for grinding. 



GRINDING- TO OL S. 



93 



The device is adjustable to hold any length of tool, from the 
shortest plane-blade to the longest chisel. Fig. 195 is a side 
view illustrating it more clearly. The rest pivots at A, while a 
slot and thumb-screw at B on each side give it adjustment and 
secure it. From a faucet in the copper pail at C, a stream of 
water of any needed size can be allowed to run. Aqueduct 
water, if available, will be more convenient. The smaller this 
stream the better; and, if it can be made to drop instead of 
run, it will be best. Have a box under the stone to catch 
waste water, and, if possible, a pipe to conduct from the box 
to a sewer. 




Fig. 195. 

Do not hold a tool on a stone in one position continuously, 
as that tends to wear away the stone at that plac^e, and conse- 
quently makes a groove in it. It also tends to make the edge 
of the tool irregular by its conforming to the irregularities of 
the stone. Keep the tool moving slowly to the right and 
left, as shown by dotted lines in the plan view, or diagram, 
Fi- 196. 



94 



ELEMENT ABY WOQBWOBK. 



A chisel may be swung to right and left, pivoting on the 
end of the handle at A, where it is supported on the rest ; but 




Fig. 196. 



a plane-blade needs to be moved bodily, as shown by dotted 



lines, rig. 197. 



A / 



Fig. 197 



GRINDING- TO OL S. 



95 



There is a natural tendency to use the middle of the face of 
a stone, as in the plan view, or diagram, Fig. 198. 

The result of this is that most any stone in use will be 
found to have a hollowed face, as in the elevation, Fig. 199. 



:s_Z 



Fig. 198. 




To obviate this as much as possible, always use the portion 
near one edge, as in Fig. 196 or 197, when you can. 

In the process of grinding, particles of steel worn off from 
the tool fill the pores of the stone, and its surface becomes 
glossed so that it will not cut the tool readily. This will 
happen to any grindstone after an hour's constant use, and 
must be scraped off, as in Fig. 200, using for the purpose a 
bar of soft iron, preferably 1 in. X tg ^^- ^^ ^^^'^^ seem 
strange to the uninitiated that a bar of soft iron should be 
used for this purpose instead of steel, but such is the fact. 

Not more than two or three minutes are needed for this 
duty, and it is surprising to note the difference in the cutting 
quality of the stone before and after the scraping. 

When the face of a stone becomes so much out of true that 
a plane-blade cannot be ground on it, it must be trued either 
by means of a piece of flat-iron or gas-pipe handled by a 



96 



ELEMENTARY WOQDWOEK. 



skilful operator in a manner similar to Fig. 200, or preferably 
by means of some one of the truing devices which can be 
purchased and kept for the purpose. 




Fig. 200. 



The form of the edge of different planes has been shown at 
Figs. 84 and 85. 

The edge of a chisel should be ground straight as from a 
to h in Eig. 201. 

After properly grinding a tool, put a 
smoother edge on it by means of an oil- 
stone. For common wood-working tools 
the article known as " Washita Stone " is 
excellent. " Arkansas Stone " is more 
It is specially adapted for 
small and fine-cutting tools. Fig. 202 is a side view of a 
chisel resting on a stone as it should in the act of stoning it. 
Keep the bevel of the tool in contact with the face of the 
stone, and then so strain the muscles that the front edge a 
shall be stoned without stoning the rear portion b. 



Fig. 201. 

expensive, having finer grain. 



GRINDING-TOOLS. 97 

Some stoning is necessary with the tool hekl flat side clown, 




as in Fig. 203. Kead also directions in connection with Fi< 
48 concerning feather edges which sometimes occur. 



Fig. 203. 

Grinding and stoning lessons may be given to sections of 
the class at any convenient time or times during the course 
of lessons. 

After one of the cheap chisels mentioned has been put in 
good cutting order by a pupil, by grinding and oilstoning, it 
may be purposely dulled by striking the edge a few times 
with the peen hammer, and another pupil can then take a 
lesson in grinding it. After such nicking, whether purposely 
or accidentally done, place the chisel in a vertical position on 
the stone, as in Fig. 204, and grind the nicks out, then grind 




Fig. 204. 



98 



ELEMENT A R Y WO (JD WORK. 



as in Fig. 194 to produce a new edge. Pupils who succeed 
with this experimental grinding can be trusted to put the 
regular tools in order when necessary. 

There is the same natural tendency to use the middle por- 
tion of the face of an oilstone as of the grindstone, and the 
same constant endeavor is therefore needed to use portions 
near the ends and edges. When the surface of an oilstone 
becomes so untrue that planes cannot be stoned on it, tack a 
piece of No. 1|- saiid-paper on a trued board, lay the oilstone 
on it face downward, and slide it in circular movements till it 
is sanded true. Time will be needed for this duty, and if the 
oilstone is much worn, several sheets of paper will be used. 

A contrivance better than the sand-paper is a planed iron 
plate 12 in. square by | in. thick. Put half a thimbleful of 
No. 90 emery on this plate, place the oilstone on it, and 
slide it with circular movements till the emery ceases to cut, 
which can be known by the sound, and then clean off the 
dust produced, and put on more emery. Each application of 
emery and grinding with it will occupy a moment or two, and 
the complete truing of the stone will occupy from fifteen 
minutes to an hour according to the amount of grinding needed. 

To grind a knife requires more skill than to grind a chisel 
or plane, because its narrow blade furnishes so little conven- 
ience to rest it accurately. 

In grinding it, let but a small portion of the length of the 
blade be in contact with the stone at a time, as in the front 



Fig. 205. 

view, Fig. 205, but keep the knife constantly moving back and 
forth in the direction of its length, as indicated by the dotted 
lines. 



G FIX DING- TO OL S. 



99 



The position Fig. 205 applies to grinding tlie straight por- 
tion of the blade, that is from a to b, Fig. 206. 



Fig. 206. 



To grind the portion of the blade from b to c, hold it on 
the stone as in Fig. 207, giving it a continuous longitudinal 
and rocking motion, necessitated by its shape. 



Fig. 207. 

For directions concerning oilstoning the knife, see m con- 
nection with Figs. 46 to 48. 

It will be noticed that the foregoing lessons give practice 
in using every tool or class of tools in the set enumerated, 
under the head of Equipment, pages 5 and 6, and, if thor- 
oughly mastered, they will insure a complete elementary 
knowledge of hand woodwork, enabling an interested student 
to manufacture any simple article by applying the principles 
learned. 



E 



• • "^"^ • • peographical 
IGIURLSQUE*Ij[***Readers 

In Four Folly Illngtrated TolumeB 

By CHAS. F. KING 

Master Dearborn Grammar School, Boston ; President National Summer School, 
Saratoga Springs; Author of " Methods and Aids in Geography" 

First Book: HOME AND SCHOOL. 

240 pages. Over 125 Illustrations. Price, 50 cents net. By mail, 55 cents. 

Second Book: THIS CONTINENT OF OURS. 

320 pages. Fully Illustrated, Price, 72 cents net. By mail, 83 cents. 

Third Book: THE LAND WE LIVE IN. Part I. 

840 pages. 153 Illustrations. Price, 56 cents net. By mail, 64 cents. 

Fourth Book: LAND WE LIVE IN. Part 11. 

240 pages. 150 Illustrations. Price, 56 cents net. By mail, 64 cents. 

True concepts of real geography can only be formed through travel or from 
pictures. Travelling is costly ; but an excellent and accurate substitute is found 
in the pictures produced by the photographic camera. The photographer has 
been round the world and made his report. We call upon him to aid us in tell- 
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Supplementary reading is in great demand, but only books which combine the 
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The four volumes of the Picturesque Readers now in course of preparation are 
not only intensely interesting, but they contain all the" Essentials of Geography" 
in so compact and vivid a form that they can be read by a bright child of ten in a 



year as supplementary reading in school, or at home in a few weeks, thus meeting 
the great demand " for less time in g 
We call attention to the following 



POINTS OF SUPERIORITY 

1 Ample use of pictures — over loo krge and elegant pictures in Vol. i. 6oa 

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14 These fascinating geographical readers will take th« place of the stupid sets 

of map questions and columns of statistics. 

LEE AND SHEPARD Pfllilisliers 10 Mitt Street BOSTON 



METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGEAPHY 

FOB THE USE OF TEACHEB8 AND NOBMAL 
SCHOOLS 



CHARLES F. KBNC 

Head Master of the Dearborn School and formerl,y Sub« 
Master of the Lewis Grammar School, Boston 

CLOTH ILLUSTRATED $1.20 NET, BY MAIL $1.38 

Professor THOMAS ^M. BALLIET, Superintendent of Public 
Schools, Springfield, Mass., writes : 

" ' Methods and Aids in Geography' contains by far the fullest and most 
complete treatment of devices, means of illustration, etc., in teaching 
geography of any book on the subject I have ever seen. The chapter on 
' Sources of Information and Illustration' will be worth to me many times 
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Sole* by all Booksellers and sent by mail on receipt of price by 

LEE AND SHEPARD Publishers Boston 



Three Books. Cloth, Illustrated. Price for each book, 50 cents. Boards, 
30 cents net. By mail, 35 cents 

FIRST SERIES 
STORIES OF AMERICAN HISTORY. By N. S. Dodge. 

As a reading-book for the younger classes in public and 'private schools (by 
many of which it has been adopted), it will be found of great value. 

" Nobody knows better than the author how to make a good story out 
of even the driest matters of fact. . . . Here are t\yenty-two of such 
stories • and they are chosen with a degree of skill which of itself would 
indicate its author's fitness for the task, even if we had no other evidence 
of that fitness. There is no better, purer, more interesting, or more instruc- 
tive book for boys." — JVew York Hearth and Ho7ne. 

SECOND SERIES 
NOBLE DEEDS OF OUR FATHERS. As told by Soldiers 

of the Revolution gathered around the Old Bell of Independence. 

Revised and adapted from Henry C. Watson. 

•' Every phase of the struggle is presented, and the moral and reli- 
gions character of our forefathers, even when engaged in deadly conflict, 
is depicted with great clearness. The young reader — indeed, older readers 
will like the stories — will be deeplv interested in the story of Lafayette s 
return to this country, of reminiscences of Washington, of the night before 
the battle of Brandywine, of the first prayer in Congress, of the patriotic 
women of that day, stories of adventure regarding Gen. Wayne, the traitor 
Arnold, the massacre of Wyoming, the capture of Gen. Prescott, and m 
other narratives equally interesting and important." —iV^rw^c/-! BziHetin. 

THIRD SERIES 

THE BOSTON TEA PARTY, and other Stories of 

the Revolution. Relating many Daring Deeds of the Old 

Heroes. By Henry C. Watson. 

"The tales are full of interesting material, they are told in a very 
graphic manner, and give many incidents of personal daring and descrip- 
tions of famous men and places. General Putnam's escape the fight at 
Concord the patriotism of Mr. Borden, tho battle of Bunker Hill the 
battle of Oriskany, the mutiny at Morristown, and the exploits of Peter- 
Francisco are among the subjects. Books such as this have a practical 
value and an undeniable charm. History will never be dull so long as it 
is represented with so much brightness and color." — Phiiadelplna Record. 

STORIES OF THE CIVIL WAR. By Albert M. Blais- 
DELL, A.M., author of " First Steps with American and British 
Authors," " Readings from the Waverley Novels," ' Blaisdell s Physi- 
ologies," etc. Illustrated. Library Edition, Cloth, ^i.oo. School 
Edition, Boards, 30 cents, net; by mail, 35 cents. 

"An exceedingly interesting collection of true stories of thrilling events 
and adventures of the brave men who fought during the Civil War. ihe 
author aims to present recitals of graphic interest and founded on tact ; 
to preserve those written by eve-witnesses or participants in the scenes 
described; and especially to stimulate a greater love and reverence for 
our beloved land and its institutions, in the character of the selections 
presented. _^__ 

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T eacher's' '' /T\' 



ETHODS 



AND AIDS 



3ESTUR>2S AND ATTITUDES 

An Exposition of the Delsarte Theory of Expression. By Edw'd. B. Warman, 

A.M., author of "The Voice, How to train It, How to care for It," etc. 

With over 150 full-page illustrations by Marion Morgan Reynolds. Quarto, 

cloth, $3.00. 

When a man who, besides a thorough knowledge of his art, possesses natural 
ability as a teacher, writes a book on this subject, one anticipates not only a thor- 
oughly reliable, but also a thoroughly practical work. In his treatise on Gestures 
and Attitudes, Professor Warman has not disappointed us, and just as far as such 
work can be made practical he has made this one so. The ideas of Delsarte arc 
presented in words whicl»all may understand. It is explicit and comprehensible. 
jSTo one can read this book or study its one hundred and tifty graceful and graphic 
illustrations without perceiving the possibility of adding strength and expression 
to gestuies and movements, as well as simplicity and ease. 

THE SWEDISH SYSTEM OF EDUCATIONAL GYMNASTICS 

By Baron Nils Posse, M. G. Graduate of the Royal Gymnastic Central Insti- 
tute of Stockholm. Formerly instructor in the Stockholm Gymnastic and 
Fencing Club. Quarto, 264 illustrations. Second Edition, Revised, ;^2.oo. 
The Swedish System while including exercises on apparatus, differs from other 
systems by its independence of apparatus, its movements being applicable to 
whatever may be at hand, and its free standing exercises are such as no appara- 
tus can take the place of. Cheapness, compactness, adaptation to a great variety 
of movements, and to the use of many persons at the same time, are the advantages 
of the Swedish apparatus. Baron Posse's treatise, which is the only comprehen- 
sive handbook of Swedish Gymnastics in the English language, has 241 illustra- 
tions. Chapters on physiological effects of exercise, and the muscular activities 
in the bodily movements, add to the value of the work, which is so arranged as to 
meet the wants of professional teachers familiar with other forms of gymnastics, 
and the general public. — Alexander Young, in The Critic. 

THE VOICE 

How to train It, How to care for it. By E. B. Warman, A. M. With full-page 
illustrations by Marion Morgan Reynolds. Quarto, cloth, $2.00. 
The book is intended for ministers, lecturers, readers, actors, singers, teachers, 
and public speakers, and the special conditions applicable to each class are 
pointed out in connection with the general subject. The use and abuse of the 
vocal organs is considered, and their legitimate functions emphasized as illus- 
trated by their anatomy, hygiene, and physiology. The breathing and vocal exer- 
cises for the culture and development of the 'human voice are made clear by 
diagrams as well as descriptions, and the fruits of the author's long experience 
as a teacher are embodied in this eminently practical treatise. — Critic. 

AN HOUR WITH DELSARTE 

A Study of Expression, by Anna Morgan of the Chicago Conservatory. Illus- 
trated by Rosa Mueller Sprague and Marion Reynolds with 'full-page 
figure illustrations. Quarto, cloth, $2.00. 

This beautiful quarto volume presents the ideas of Delsarte in words which all 
may understand. It is explicit and comprehensible. No one can read this book 
or study its twenty-two graceful and graphic illustrations without perceiving the 
possibility of adding strength and expression to gestures and movements as well 
as simplicity and ease. Mr. Turveydrop went through Hfe with universal approval, 
simply by his admirable "deportment." Every young person may profitably 
take a hint from his success, and this book will be 'found invaluable as an 
instructor.— Wo7nafis Journal, Boston. 



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NO. "" 

1. The Legends of the Northmen. 
Columbus and his Companions. 

2. Cabot and Verazzano. 

Strange Voyage of Caberza De Vaca. 

3. French in Canada. 
Adventures of De Soto. 

4. French in Florida. 

Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 

5. The Lost Colonies of Virginia. 
Unsuccessful New England Settlements. 

6. Captain John Smith. 
Champlain on the War Path. 

7. Henry Hudson and the New Netherlands. 

8. The Pilgrims at Plymouth. 
Massachusetts Bay Colony. 

Louisa Parsons Hopkins. 

9. Parables of Nature and Life ; or, Science applied to 

Character. 

Mrs. Perry. 

lOt Bible Stories. Arranged for reading in all schools, 

Louisa Parsons Hopkins. 

11. Observation Lessons in Primary Schools. 

12. Plant and Animal Life. 

13. Physical Phenomena of Nature and the Human 

Body. 

14. Physical Exercise and Manual Training. 
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J ANE ANDREWS^S BOOKS i 

THE STORIES MOTHER NATURE TOLD HER 
CHILDREN. 

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ONLY A YEAR, AND WHAT IT BROUGHT. 

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TEN BOYS WHO LIVED ON THE ROAD FROM LONG 
AGO TO NOW. 

With Twenty Illustrations. Library Edition, -fl.OO. School Edition, 
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IN-BRODUCING THE STORiES OP 

IHE ARYAN BOY, THE PERSIAN BOY, THE GRKKK BOY, THE ROMAN 

BOY, THE SAXON BOY. THE PAGE, THE ENGLISH LAD, THE 

PURITAN BOY, THE YANKEE BOY, THE BOY OF 1886. 

The poet John G. Whittier says of it: — 

" I have been reading the new book by Jane Andrews, 'Ten Boys who Lived 
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small compass the concentrated knowiedge of vast libraries. It is the admirably 
told story of past centuries of the world's progress, and the amount of study and 
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larger growth ' will find an irresistible charm. That it will prove a favorite with 
old ana young, I have no doubt. It seems to me that nothing could be more en- 
joyable to the boy of our period than the story of how the boys of all ages lived 
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THE SEVEN LITTLE SISTERS 

mo Lll/E ON THE ROUND BALL THAT FLOATS IN THE AIR. 

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The Seven Little Sisters are typical of seven races; and the author's 
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the world, how the products of one country are brought to another, 
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TliB Seven Little Sisters Prove Tleir Sisteriiool 

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This may be considered a sequel to The Seven Little Sisters, in 
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each, in relation to its childhood, are naturally and pleasingly given. 

GEOGRAPHICAL PLAYS. 

Comprising United States, Asia, Africa, and South America, 

Australia and the Islands, the Commerce of the World. 

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BLAISDELL'S REVISED SERIES of PHYSIOLOGIES 

BY 

DR. ALBERT F. BLAISDELL 

Author of *' First Steps with Ainericun and British Authors," " Stories of the 

Civil War," " Study of the English Classics," " Readings fi'om the 

Waverley Novels," " Stories from English History," etc. 

COMPRISING 

Physiology for Little Folks 

(R-ivised Edition of" Child's Book of Health") 
Introduction Price, 30 cents, net 

Physiology for Boys and Girls 

(Revised Edition of" How to Keep Well ") 
Introduction Price, 42 cents, net 

Young Folks' Physiology 

(Revised Edition of " Our Bodies") 
Introduction Price, 60 cents, net 

The leading purpose of the books of this series is to treat of the care and preser- 
vation of the health. The latest facts are given; and in each division the effects of 
alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics on the human system are shown with 
force, accuracy, and candor. The author, who is a successful practising physician, 
and largely engaged in educational matters, has accomplished the difficult task of 
adaptino- the different books of the series to the capacity and taste of the different 
grades of pupils for whom they are designed, the language employed being remark- 
ably adapted to each grade. Many experiments with and without apparatus are 
sugo"ested and explained in a manner that will be invaluable to the pupils. The 
health notes, in the form of blackboard exercises, in the " Physiology for Little 
Folks," in physical exercises, in "Young F"olks' Physiology," and in hundreds of 
suggestions throughout the volumes, form especially good features of the series. 

As suggested by the general title the volumes have been thoroughly revised, and 
are printed from entirely new plates, with many new illustrations. These new 
editions have been prepared under the advice and supervision of Mrs. Makv H. 
Hunt, National and International Superintendent of the Scientific Department of 
the Women's Christian Temperance Union. Blaisdell's Physiologies are in use in 
Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Providence, Springfield, Augusta, Me., and 
hundreds of cities and towns throughout the country. 



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iiy Gabriel Compayre. Translated by William H. Payne, Ph.D., LL.D., 

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METHODS OF INSTRUCTION AND ORGANIZATION IN THE 
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By John T. Prince, Mass. State Board of Education. Cloth, $i.oo, net. 
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METHODS AND AIDS IN GEOGRAPHY 

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REMINISCENCES OF FRIEDRICH JROEBEL 

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MOTHER-PLAY AND NURSERY SONGS 

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THE SPIRIT OF THE NEW EDUCATION 

By Louisa Parsons Hopkins, supervisor of Boston Public Schools. Clo.jfi.so. 
HOW SHALL MY CHILD BE TAUGHT? 

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A Study of Expression. By Anna Morgan of the Chicago Conservatory, 
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THE VOICE 

How to Train It, How to Care for It. By E. B. Warman, A.M. With full- 
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GESTURES AND ATTITUDES 

An Exposition of the Delsarte Theory of Expression. By Edw'd B. War- 
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With over 150 full-page illustrations by Marion Morgan Reynolds. Cloth, ;f3.oo. 

HANDBOOK OF SCHOOL GYMNASTICS OF THE SWEDISH 
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THE SWEDISH SYSTEM OF EDUCATIONAL GYMNASTICS 

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STUDY OF THE ENGLISH CLASSICS 

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THE ART OF PROJECTING , ,. • x 

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